BBB 


LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


PACIFIC  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY. 
Accession 8.46.49. 


On  o'-fr* 
ALCOVE, 

C 


SHELF, 


Presented  b 


1 


LECTURES 


YOUNG    LADIES, 


C  O  MLP  RISING 


OUTLINES  AND  APPLICATIONS  OP  THE  DIFFERENT   BRANCHES 


F.EMALE   EDUCATION. 

a 


FOR  THE    USE   OF    FEMALE    SCHOOLS,    AND    PRIVATE  LIBRARIES. 


DELIVERED  TO  THE  PUPILS  OF 


BY  MRS.  ALMIRA  H.  LINCOLN  PHELPS, 

(Late  Vice  Principal  of  that  Institution.] 

AUTHOR  OF  FAMILIAR  LECTURES  ON  BOTANY.  ETC, 


V 


BOSTON: 

CARTER,    HENDBE    &    CO. 
1833. 


[Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1833,  by 

CARTER,  HENDEE  &  Co. 
in  the  Office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts.] 


LATELY  PUBLISHED, 

LECTURES  ON  SCHOOL  KEEPING.  By  Samuel  R.  Hall.  Third 
edition.  This  work  is  intended  to  be  a  complete  school  teacher's 
manual,  and  contains  all  the  necessary  practical  directions  for 
their  observance  in  the  instruction  and  management  of  schools. 
It  has  been  productive  of  much  good,  and  were  it  in  the  hands  of 
every  teacher  and  carefully  studied,  it  would  produce  an  improve- 
ment in  our  common  schools,  almost  beyond  belief.  So  sensible 
of  this  are  the  enlightened  legislators  of  New  York,  that  they  have 
passed  an  act  authorising  the  commissioner  to  procure  a  copy  for 
every  district  in  the  State,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  for  the  cause  of 
education,  that  the  example  may  be  imitated  by  other  States.  It 
has  received  unqualified  praise  from  all  the  Journals,  and  from  all 
the  teachers  who  have  examined  it, 

LECTURES  TO  FEMALE  TEACHERS   on  School  Keeping.     By 
Samuel  R.  Hall,  author  of  Lectures  on  School  Keeping. 
Extract  from  the  Preface. 

'  The  author  has  aimed  to  render  all  the   directions  practical, 
and  make  the  volume  a  general  directory  for  properly   discharg- 
ing the  responsible  duties  involved  in   the  office  of  the    Primary 
Teacher.     The  work  is  designed,  not  merely  to  be  read,  but  to  be  j 
studied;  it  may  also  be  made  a  daily  manual,  during  the  time  de-  j 
voted  to  teaching. 

INFANT  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  OR  TEACHER'S  ASSISTANT  ; 
Containing  a  view  of  the  system  of  Infant  Schools.  Also,  a  vari- 
ety of  useful  lessons,  for  the  use  of  teachers. — By  Mrs.  Rowland. 
New  edition  enlarged. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  two  first  editions  were  sold,  is  evi- 
dence of  the  want  of  such  a  work  as  this.  This  edition  has  been 
improved  and  enlarged,  and  will  be  found  a  valuable  assistant  to 
those  who  are  engaged  in,  or  are  desirous  of  qualifying  themselves 
for  teaching  Infant  Schools.  It  will  also  be  useful  to  every  teach- 
er of  young  children  in  common  schools  or  families. 

WAITT     AND     DOW'S     PRESS  , B  O  S  T  O  N  . 


DEDICATION. 


To  MADAME  LOUISE  S.  W.  BELLOC, 

AND 

MADAMOISELLE  ADELAIDE  DE  MONTGOLFIER, 

To  you,  sisters  in  affection,  and  united  in  your  ef- 
forts to  promote  human  virtue  and  improvement,  asso- 
ciated with  the  friend  and  benefactor  of  America  the 
good  Lafayette,  in  the  important  care  of  selecting  a  na- 
tional library  for  your  beloved  country,  the  following 
pages  are  respectfully  and  affectionately  inscribed  by 
one,  who  is  proud  to  have  been  acknowledged  by  you  as 
a  friend  and  an  associate  in  the  cause  of  education.  For 
this  distinguished  honor,  as  well  as  the  affection  mani- 
fested by  you  for  my  beloved  sister,  during  her  residence 
in  France,  permit  me  thus  publicly  to  express  my  grati- 
tude. May  the  friendship  which  in  so  interesting  a 
manner  has  been  commenced  between  us  be  elevated  and 
permanent  in  its  nature,  as  the  objects  which  have  giv- 
en rise  to  it  are  noble  and  imperishable. 

ALMIRA  H.  LINCOLN  PHELPS. 

Mont  CervuSj  Guilford,  Vermont. 


.,.84649 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  Saturday  Lectures  were  delivered  to  the 
pupils  of  Troy  Female  Seminary,  while  the  Author  pre- 
sided over  that  Institution,  during  the  visit  of  the  Princi- 
pal in  Europe,  in  1830  and  1831.  Although  in  being  re- 
vised for  the  press,  they  have  received  alterations  and  ad- 
ditions, they  are  now  offered  to  the  public  substantially 
the  same,  as  to  the  plan  and  execution,  as  they  were 
originally  delivered. 

This  volume,  which  comprises  the  first  series  of  a 
course  of  Lectures  on  Female  Education,  is  principally 
devoted  to  subjects  connected  with  Intellectual  Improve- 
ment. It  is  the  author's  intention  to  prepare  the  re- 
maining series  for  publication  within  the  ensuing  year. 

The  second  series  will,  in  part,  be  devoted  to  the  con- 
sideration of  those  Affections  of  the  Mind  called  Emotions, 
comprehending  our  Moral  and  Religious  Feelings,  the 
Duties  of  Woman  in  domestic  life,  as  a  teacher  of  youth, 
in  society,  and  towards  her  Maker. 

It  was  at  first  designed  that  the  whole  series  should  be 
comprised  in  one  volume ;  but  the  subjects  which  present^ 
ed  themselves  were  too  numerous  and  important  to  be 
compressed  within  the  small  compass  at  first  intended, 
and  there  seemed  also  to  be  a  natural  division  between 
the  subjects  which  constituted  the  whole  course. 

Although  Intellectual  Improvement  is  not  in  reality  to 

be  separated  from  Moral  Cultivation,  since  both  should 

proceed  together,  it  is  more  convenient  to  treat  of  them 

separately.     Thus  we  may  give  the  distinct  history  of 

1* 


0  PREFACE. 

some  one  kingdom,  without  carrying  on  that  of  another 
with  which  it  is  intimately  connected,  any  farther  than 
may  be  necessary  in  the  furtherance  of  our  principal 
design ;  but  when  we  have  traced  the  history  of  the  one, 
we  may  then  commence  that  of  the  other. 

The  object  of  these  Lectures  was  to  awaken  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils,  habits  of  thought  with  respect  to  the 
nature  and  design  of  education,  and  the  practical  appli- 
cation which  ought  to  be  made  of  its  various  branches. 
The  young  ladies  to  whom  they  were  addressed  were 
pursuing  studies. of  different  kinds  ;  and  it  was  important 
that  they  should  know  the  t  why  and  the  wherefore,*  with 
the  broad  and  general  principles  of  literature  and 
science.  Their  teachers  in  the  individual  classes  would 
no  doubt  endeavor  to  point  out  these ;  but  every  teacher 
is  well  aware  that  by  long  dwelling  upon  a  particular 
department  of  education,  he  becomes  minute,  and  that 
there  is  always  danger  that  the  general  scope  of  a 
science  may  be  lost  sight  of,  in  the  microscopic  views 
which  he  is  obliged  to  take.  Many  a  pupil  who  has 
studied  each  page  of  a  text  book  with  close  attention,  has 
been  found  unable  to  give  an  explanation  of  the  outlines 
and  general  character  of  the  work,  or  the  science  on 
which  it  treated. 

It  was  intended  in  these  Lectures  to  exhibit  the  na- 
ture and  objects  of  female  education,  with  outlines  of  the 
various  sciences  connected  with  it:  in  nearly  all  of  these 
the  author  had  at  different  periods  personally  instructed, 
and  her  views  of  them  were  the  result  of  her  own 
experience  and  observation. 

In  appearing  again  before  the  public  as  an  author, 
I  feel  a  degree  of  timidity  unknown  on  former  occasions. 
In  my  first  work, '  Familiar  Lectures  on  Botany,'  my  steps 
were  supported  by  guides  who,  if  not  in  fallible,  were  de- 


PREFACE.  7 

serving  of  veneration  and  confidence.  If  I  wandered  from 
the  path  of  true  science,  it  was  with  Linnasus,  with  Jus- 
sieu  and  Mirbel.  If,  leaving  these  guides  for  a  time  to  con- 
verse familiarly  with  the  fair  young  beings,  of  whom  the 
flowers  of  summer  are  no  unapt  emblems, — if,  pausing  to 
discourse  with  them  of  the  goodness  of  that  Great  Bene- 
factor whose  blessings  are  so  profusely  shed  around  our 
pathway,  or  to  suggest  from  the  consideration  of  the 
works  of  nature  and  the  bounties  of  Providence,  reflec- 
tions touching  our  own  moral  and  religious  obligations, — 
still  my  venerable  instructers  were  patiently  bearing  with 
my  garrulity,  and  ever  reacy  to  help  me  forward  in  my 
attempt  to  unfold  the  beautiful  system  which  arranges  the 
objects  of  an  important  part  of  the  kingdom  of  nature. 

In  my  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  a  work  of  more 
severe  labor,  and  less  cheered  with  the  glowing  hues 
with  which  imagination  invests  the  subjects  of  botanical 
research,  1  was  secure  from  apprehension,  by  the  respon- 
sibilities of  the  authors  whom  I  translated,  and  the  ap- 
probation and  encouragement  of  two  friends  of  science 
who  kindly  encouraged  me  in  my  labors,  and  gave  them 
the  sanction  of  their  names.*  Under  such  auspices,  I 
had  little  reason  to  fear  that  even  the  parts  of  that  work 
in  which  I  ventured  at  originality  would  meet  with 
severe  criticism.  The  call  for  three  large  editions  of 
the  Lectures  on  Botany  within  two  years,  with  the 
adoption  of  my  Dictionary  of  Chemistry  into  academies, 
colleges,  and  medical  schools,  have  encouraged  me  to 
offer  these  Lectures  to  the  public. 

But  notwithstanding  so  many  unexpected  encourage- 
ments, it  is  with  hesitation  that  I  now  unveil  to  public 
observation  those  scenes  ever  to  be  remembered,  when 

*  Professors  Silliman  and  Eaton. 


8  PREFACE. 

surrounded  by  a  numerous  assembly  of  young  females,* 
among  whom  were  my  own  daughters,  and  many  little 
less  dear  to  me,  I  endeavored  to  impress  upon  youthful 
intellects  the  truths  of  science,  and  upon  yet  unsophisti- 
cated hearts  the  love  of  virtue  and  sentiments  of  reli- 
gion. Although  the  partial  affection  of  these  dear  pupils 
led  them  to  believe  that  these  instructions  might  be 
useful  to  others,  strangers  may  judge  differently ;  they 
may  view  with  the  cold  eye  of  criticism,  attempts  to  do 
good  which  were  prompted  by  a  warm  heart  and 
zeal  to  elevate  the  female  character  and  discharge  a 
sacred  obligation. 

Those,  who  with  me,  feel  deeply  on  the  subject  of 
human  improvement,  and  who  may  perceive  errors  of 
judgment,  or  faults  of  execution  in  the  following  pages, 
will,  I  trust,  be  willing  to  communicate  with  me  as  friend 
with  friend ;  and  such  may  be  assured  that  any  criticism 
or  counsel  thus  offered,  will  be  gratefully  received  and 
acknowledged. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  teachers  of  experience,  that 
these  Lectures  would  prove  valuable  assistants  in  educa- 
tion, by  affording  a  kind  of  Synopsis  for  weekly  reviewing 
lessons  in  the  various  departments  of  study,  as  well  as 
a  suitable  reading  book  for  young  ladies'  schools.t  It 
was  indeed  partly  in  the  anticipation  of  such  an  object 
that  the  lectures  were  originally  committed  to  writing,  as 
the  author  was  little  confined  to  notes,  but  often  pursued 
the  train  of  thought  which  was  suggested  at  the  mo- 
ment. 

Amongst  the  numerous  works  on  education  which  are 

*  The  number  of  pupils  was  nearly  two  hundred. 

t  Among  the  number  of  those  who  have  expressed  this  opin- 
ion, I  have  pleasure  in  naming  Miss  Beecher,  the  respected  Prin- 
cipal of  the  Hartford  Female  Seminary,  to  whom  the  plan  of  this 
work  was  early  communicated.  . 


PREFACE.  9 

now  before  the  public,  the  author  knows  of  none  similar 
in  plan  to  this.  Abridgements  and  compilations  differ 
much  from  compounds,  which,  though  formed  of  pre- 
viously existing  elements,  come  fresh  from  the  crucible 
of  mind,  bearing  upon  them  the  author's  'own  image 
and  superscription/ 

The  names  which  appear  in  the  dedication  of  this 
work  may  not  be  extensively  known  in  this  country. 
To  those  not  conversant  with  French  literature,  the  most 
distinguished  writers  are  not  generally  known  until 
time  engraves  their  names  upon  the  records  of  history. 
In  America,  the  names  of  the  distinguished  women  of 
England  are  almost  as  familiar  as  if  the  Atlantic  did  not 
separate  the  two  countries.  The  reason  of  this  is  obvi- 
ous; we  speak  and  write  a  common  language,  and 
thought,  meeting  with  no  impediment,  is  wafted  across 
die  ocean  with  a  rapidity  almost  equal  to  its  own  opera- 
tions. Thus  the  name  and  writings  of  Maria  Edge- 
worth,  are  known  to  almost  every  child  of  our  country, 
while  those  of  Madame  Belloc  and  Madamoiselle  de 
Montgolfier,  although  no  less  celebrated  in  Europe, 
are  by  no  means  familiar  to  Americans.  These  two 
ladies,  witha  singular  devotion  of  friendship,  mutually 
share  in  fortune,  literary  labor  and  fame.*  They  have 
been  connected  with  M.  Jullien,  one  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened men  of  the  age,f  in  conducting  the  Revue  Ency- 

*  Madame  Belloc  in  a  letter  to  myself,  says,  '  /'  ai  pour  aide  une 
autre  moi,  meilleur,  que  moi,  et  plus  capable  d'accomplir,  c'est 
uneamie,  une  soeur  d'adoption,  avec  laquelle  depuis  douze  rans, 
je  suis  ft  moitie  de  tout;  peines,  plaisirs,  traveaux,  families  nous 
avout  tout  en  commune,  c'est  en  son  nom  autant  qu'au  mien  que 
je  yous  remercie  de  votre  lettre,  et  que  je  reclame  un  peu  de  votre 
amitie  ;  j'aime  a  pensee  qu'avec  vous,  Madame,  nous  nous  trouve- 
rons  comme  avec  Madame  Willard  licis  d'une  longue  et  anciene 
amitie  par  de  profonds  rapporte  de  pensee  et  de  gout.' 

t  For  an  interesting  sketch  of  this  Savant  see  a  late  communi- 
pation  of  Mr.  Willis,  for  the  New  York  Mirror. 


10  PREFACE. 

clopedique,  a  distinguished  Literary  Journal  of  Paris ;  they 
take  a  deep  and  active  interest  in  many  of  the  schools 
and  charitable  institutions  of  France,  and  the  literature  of 
their  country  is  enriched  by  many  of  their  valuable  and 
joint  productions. 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE     I.    Introductory * » %13 

«  II.    Different  views  of  young  persons  re- 

"  specting    the  objects  of    education. 

"  Four  classes  of  pupils :  1st,  the  gay 

"  and   fashionable ;    2d^  the  idle  and 

"  careless ;    3d,  the    moral ;    4th,  the 

"  pious, 17 

"  III.    The  nature  and  objects  of  education.  .25 

"  IV.    Private  and  Public  Education. — Public 

«  Schools 33 

"  V.    Physical  Education , 49 

"  VI.    Division  of  Mental  Faculties.    Cultiva- 

"  tion    of  Mental    Faculties.    Mental 

"  Discipline 65 

"  VII.     Spelling.     Articulate    Sounds.    Read- 

«  ing 75 

.    "  VIII.     Reading 81 

"  IX.     Grammar 89 

"  X.    Ancient  Languages 95 

"  XL    Modern  Languages 108 

"  XII.    Modern    Geography.    Ancient  Geog- 

"  raphy 116 

"  XIII.    History 135 

XIV.    Mythology 147 


12 


CONTENTS. 


LECTURE  XV.    Natural  Science.  T Astronomy.    Nat- 
ural Philosophy. 161 

"  XVI.  Chemistry.  History  of  Chemistry . .  * .  172 
"  XVII.  Natural  History.  Zoology.  Botany..  197 
"  XVIII.  Mineralogy.  Geology * .  .213 

"         XIX.    Mathematics.    Arithmetic    and  |  Alge- 
bra.    Geometry .236 

"  XX.    Rhetoric.    Criticism.    Composition.  ..249 

"         XXI.     Logic.     Moral     Philosophy.     Intellec- 
tual Philosophy 264 

u        XXII.     Accomplishments.    Music!     Dancing. 

Drawing, 280 

Parting  Hymn,  sung  by  the  Pupils  of 
Troy  Female  Seminary,  at  the  close 
of  Examination,  Feb.  16, 1831 307 


LECTURES. 


LECTURE   I. 

Introductory. 

MY  DEAR  PUPILS  :  With  feelings  of  deep  anxiety  and 
a  solemn  sense  of  my  own  responsibility,  I  now  ad- 
dress you.^We  have  just  parted  with  her,  from  whom  I 
as  well  as  you,  have  been  accustomed  to  receive  advice 
and  instruction.  Every  receding  wave  is  carrying  her 
from  her  native  country,  and  her  loved  and  cherished  in- 
stitution. The  affectionate  and  admonitory  words  which 
she  spake  at  parting  are  yet  fresh  in  our  minds ;  and  we, 
like  the  Ephesians  when  St.  Paul  tore  himself  from  them, 
sorrow  most  of  all,  lest  we  may  see  her  face  no  more. 
But  let  us  hope  that  a  life  on  which  so  much  depends 
may  be  preserved,  and  that  a  mind  whose  efforts  have 
been  so  greatly  blessed  for  the  improvement  of  her  sex, 
may  be  restored  to  us  with  renewed  vigor,  enriched  by 
observations  of  the  state  of  female  education  in  foreign 
countries,  and  with  increased  facilities  for  usefulness  in 
her  own.  Let  us  show  our  love  to  this  dear  friend,  not 
by  vainly  regretting  her  absence,  but  by  remembering  her 
words  and  following  her  precepts. 

I  see  by  the  affectionate  beamings  of  many  a  youthful1 
countenance,  that  you  are  ready  to  give  your  confidence 
and  love  to  one  whom  Providence  has  called  to  fill  a 
station  to  which  her  own  ambition  was  far  from  aspiring. 
To  me,  my  dear  girls,  the  change  is  great,  from  the  re- 
tirement of  domestic  life,  to  find  myself  within  a  few  short 
years,  called  to  preside  over  a  public  institution,  number- 
ing nearly  two  hundred  pupils,  many  of  whom  are  al- 
2 


14  INTRODUCTORY. 

ready  distinguished  for  literary  attainments,  to  be  the  re- 
sponsible head  of  so  i  umerous  a  family,  and  to  find  it 
my  duty  to  direct  and  advise  a  body  of  teachers,  combin- 
ing experience  and  learning,  with  talents  of  a  high  order. 

It  is  with  humility,  in  view  of  my  own  deficiences,  that 
I  speak  to  you  of  \hese  responsibilities.  I  wish  you  to 
know  and  feel  the  cares  and  anxieties  of  my  situation ; 
and  may  I  not  count  upon  each  one  of  you  as  a  friend, 
ready  to  give  me  your  encouragement  and  aid  upon  all 
occasions  when  they  can  be  useful.  These  occasions,  my 
dear  pupils,  will  be  many  :  to  you  I  must  look  for  industry, 
to  sustain  by  your  improvement  the  high  character  of  the 
institution.  You  must  aid  me  in  maintaining  good  order 
and  in  supporting  discipline  ;  you  must,  by  your  obedience 
and  attention  to  the  teachers,  render  their  situations 
Agreeable ;  and  finally,  by  your  affectionate  and  encour- 
aging behaviour,  support  me  in  the  discharge  of  my  du- 
ties. 

In  consenting  to  take  upon  myself  the  charge  of  this 
institution  during  the  necessary  absence  of  its  Principal, 
I  have  done  what  was  demanded  by  a  sense  of  moral 
obligation,  as  well  as  by  sisterly  affection  ;  and  in  the 
discharge  of  my  duties,  1  must  look  for  guidance  and  sup- 
port to  Him  to  whom  we  owe  all  our  intellectual  faculties, 
the  physical  power  to  execute  what  the  mind  dictates, 
and  who  will  not  require  more  of  us  than  he  will  enable 
us  to  perform. 

In  pursuance  with  the  custom  of  the  late  Principal,  I 
shall  continue  to  devote  a  portion  of  time,  on  each  Satur- 
day, to  giving  general  instruction  on  subjects  connected 
with  literature,  morals  and  religion.  In  these  Lectures 
I  shall  consider  the  nature  and  object  of  education,  the 
various  branches  of  study  here  pursued  with  their  prac- 
tical application,  female  manners  and  accomplishments, 
the  peculiar  duties  of  woman  in  her  domestic  relations, 
towards  society,  and  towards  her  Maker. 

It  is  of  vast  importance  that  you  should  entertain  just 
views  of  the  bearing  which  the  ideas  you  now  gain,  and 
the  habits  you  now  form  will  have  upon  your  future  des- 
tinies both  for  time  and  eternity.  As  I  look  around  upon 
the  young  and  happy  faces  before  me,  and  consider  the 


INTRODUCTORY.  15 

changes  which  a  few  years  will  produce,  my  emotions  are 
too  powerful  for  expression.  I  see  in  the  gay,  unreflecting 
girl,  the  future  wife,  the  mother,  and  the  candidate  for  im- 
mortality, having  power  not  only  over  her  own  destiny, 
but  capable  of  wielding  vast  influence  over  other  immor- 
tal beings.  Impressed  as  these  solemn  truths  are  upon 
my  mind,  I  may  at  times,  seern  to  expect  from  you  too 
much  seriousness  and  reflection,  at  an  age  when  gaiety 
and  thoughtlessness  are  so  natural. 

Far  be  from  me  the  wish  to  check  the  spontaneous 
cheerfulness  of  your  young  hearts,  to  see  you  sorrow- 
ful and  desponding,  or  to  expect  in  you  an  unnatural 
precocity  of  judgment  and  forethought.  The  world  will 
soon  enough  change  the  buoyancy  of  youthful  glee  into 
heaviness.  Enjoy  then  this  spring  time  of  your  existence, 
this  morning  of  your  life  ;  but  enjoy  with  moderation,  and 
spare  something  from  the  exuberance  of  your  emotions, 
to  soften  and  cheer  the  sober  and  pensive  season,  which, 
should  your  lives  be  spared,  will  as  assuredly  follow,  as 
evening  follows  morning  or  as  spring  is  succeeded  by 
autumn.  Should  you  see  a  group  of  happy  children,  sport- 
ing near  the  border  of  some  dreadful  precipice,  which 
they  in  their  childish  glee  heeded  not,  would  you  think  it 
unkind  to  check  them  in  their  mirth,  in  order  to  point 
out  their  danger  ?  or  if  one  should  chance  to  have  stray- 
ed to  the  verge  of  the  precipice,  would  you  hesitate  to 
seize  him  even  somewhat  roughly,  in  order  to  save  him 
from  destruction  ?  Think  it  not,  then,  my  dear  girls,  un- 
kind in  those,  who  by  the  light  of  experience  see  dangers 
to  you  invisible,  if  they  raise  a  warning  voice,  if  they 
give  a  temporary  check  to  your  gaiety,  in  order  to  avert 
evils  which  they  see  impending  over  you.  The  eye  of 
experience  sees  before  you  trials  of  virtue,  affliction, 
pain  and  death ;  and  •  after  death  cometh  the  judgment/ 
In  view  of  these  solemn  and  momentous  interests,  I  can- 
not but  watch  with  deep  anxiety  and  solicitude,  even 
your  slightest  actions ;  these,  though  individually  of  little 
consequence,  appear  of  vast  importance  when  considered 
as  indications  of  future  character. 

All  human  beings  must  suffer  pain,  and  sorrow  ;  but  on 
woman  do  the  evils  incident  to  human  existence  fall  with 


16  INTRODUCTORY. 

peculiar  severity.  Our  hearts  are  sensitive,  we  are  easily 
elated,  or  depressed  ;  the  delicacy  of  our  nervous  system, 
renders  us  subject  to  a  thousand  agitations  to  which  the 
other  sex,  from  greater  physical  strength  and  more  firmness 
of  nerves  are  exempt.  We  are  subject  to  caprices,  and 
need  to  be  fortified  by  intellectual  discipline,  and  above 
all,  by  religious  principles  to  enable  us  to  overcome  the 
weaknesses  to  which  our  minds,  owing  to  a  peculiar  phy- 
sical organization  are  subject. 

How  much  is  the  delicate  frame  of  woman  called  to  en- 
dure !  Pain  and  sickness ; — and,  what  is  more  trying  to  the 
mind  than  personal  suffering,  we  must  experience  the  an- 
guish of  watching  over  the  distresses  of  others ;  of  wit- 
nessing death  in  its  triumph  over  the  objects  nearest  to 
our  affections.  Yes,  you,  whose  hearts  now  beat  high 
with  expectation,  who  feel  that  the  world  is  matur- 
ing roses  for  you  to  pluck,  even  you,  my  daughters, 
are  to  find  thorns  springing  up  before  you.  You  are 
destined  to  watch  over  the  couch  of  sick  and  dying 
friends,  parents,  brothers  and  sisters,  and  perhaps  to  per- 
form the  last  sad  offices  for  some  of  these  your  compan- 
ions who  are  now  before  you  glowing  with  health  and 
beauty — some  of  you  will  mourn  over  dying  children,  some 
will  experience  the  sorrow  and  desolation  of  widowhood ; 
and  all,  sooner  or  later,  will  taste  of  death,  the  com- 
mon lot  of  mortals. 

In  uttering  these  predictions,  I  am  not  arrogating  to 
myself  a  supernatural  foresight ;  life,  with  some  slight 
variations,  will  be  to  you,  as  to  those  who  have  gone  be- 
fore you.  The  smaller  circumstances,  the  filling  up  of 
the  picture  of  your  lives,  time  only  will  exhibit,  but  the 
outlines  are  too  darkly  and  plainly  marked  not  to  be 
manifest  to  the  eye  of  experience.  Within  the  last  seven 
years,  during  which  time  I  have  been  connected  with  this 
institution,  many  pupils  whom  I  have  addressed  from  this 
place,  and  who  like  you  were  full  of  hope  and  anticipa- 
tion, have  gone  forth  into  the  world,  only  to  prove  its  van- 
ity and  falsehood.  Some  have  felt  the  bitterness  arising 
from  the  consciousness  of  having  bestowed  their  young 
affections  upon  unworthy  objects,  some  have  pined  in 
secret  over  a  hopeless  attachment,  while  others  after  hav- 


DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS.  17 

ing  been  flattered  and  worshipped  as  angels,  have  been  left 
to  the  heart-rending  condition  of  deserted  and  neglected 
wives.  Some,  who  to  appearance  were  happily  settled  in 
life,  have  been  called  to  leave  beautiful  and  elegant 
homes,  the  arms  of  fond  affection,  with  all  the  charms  of 
domestic  life,  and  to  lie  down  in  the  grave.  The  most 
devoted  love,  the  most  extensive  wealth, 

'  Could  give  no  more 
Than  earth  enough  to  make  Iheir  narrow  bed.' 

Even  the  young  and  beautiful,  when  the  seal  of  death  is 
upon  her,  is  given  up  to  corruption,  and  the  worm  feeds 
sweetly  upon  its  victim. 

Is  there  not  enough,  then,  my  beloved  pupils,  in  view 
of  the  various  trials,  which  are  incident  to  woman,  and  es- 
pecially in  view  of  the  final  destination  of  all  human  beings, 
to  bring  you  to  reflection  ?  And,  oh  that  you  may  lift 
up  your  hearts  in  prayer,  and  beseech  your  Heavenly 
Father  to  fit  you  for  the  performance  of  your  duties  in  life, 
for  the  patient  suffering  of  your  trials,  and  for  the  enjoy- 
ment of  Heaven. 

e  Woman's  lot  is  on  you  !  silent  tears  to  weep 

And  patient  smiles  to  wear  through  suffering's  hour, 

And  sumless  riches  from  affections  deep 

To  pour  on  broken  reeds — a  wasted  shower  ! — 

And  to  make  idols  and  to  find  them  clay, 

And  to  bewail  that  worship  !  therefore  pray  ! — 

Earth  will  forsake — Oh,  happy  to  have  given 

Th'  unbroken  heart's  first  fragrance  unto  Heaven.' 


LECTURE  II. 

Different  views  of  young  persons  respecting  the  object 
of  education.  Pour  classes  of  pupils :  1st,  the  gay 
and  fashionable ;  %d,  the  idle  and  careless ;  3d,  the 
moral;  £th,  the  pious. 

IT  is   of  great  importance  to  you  all,  that  you  should 
well  understand  your  own  characters,  the  views  which 

2* 


18  DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS. 

you  entertain  upon  the  subject  of  your  present  advan- 
tages of  education,  and  the  preparations  you  are  making 
for  futurity,  both  as  it  respects  this  life  and  that  which  is 
to  come.  And  yet,  how  few  young  persons  do  reflect 
deeply  upon  these  things;  how  often  are  they  careless 
of  the  seeds  which  may  be  taking  root  in  their  minds. 
What  should  we  think  of  a  farmer,  who  was  either  idle 
in  spring,  or  indifferent  whether  good  seed,  or  such  as 
would  bring  forth  useless,  noxious  weeds,  were  sown 
upon  his  grounds  ?  But  what  is  the  product  of  a  farm, 
compared  with  the  fruits  of  the  human  mind?  The 
former  transient  and  perishable  :  the  latter  treasured  up 
in  the  great  record  of  human  actions,  and  made  the 
criterion  by  which  the  destiny  of  the  immortal  soul  is 
fixed  for  eternity. 

Xet  us  suppose  each  one  of  you,  asking  herself  for 
what  purpose  am  I  placed  in  this  institution,  and  how 
am  I  improving  the  advantages  here  offered  me?  After 
searching  into  your  own  hearts,  let  conscience  make  her 
report ;  happy  indeed  are  those  who  will  not  stand  self- 
accused  at  that  tribunal  of  moral  feeling,  which  the 
Almighty  has  established  in  your  own  minds  for  the 
regulation  of  your  conduct. 

The  different  individuals  now  before  me,  with  respect 
to  their  peculiar  views,  motives,  and  characters,  may, 
perhaps  with  propriety  be  arranged  in  four  classes.  Do 
not,  my  dear  girls,  think  me  severe  in  what  I  am  going 
to  say.  Like  the  physician,  I  must  consider  the  nature 
of  your  maladies,  in  order  to  point  out  the  remedies. 
Were  you  diseased,  without  any  means  of  cure;  had 
Providence  cursed  you  with  certain  moral  stains  which 
were  irrevocably  fixed,  I  f  would  lay  my  hand  upon  my 
mouth/  and  utter  no  words  of  reproach  to  a  misery  so 
hopeless.  But  blessed  be  God,  a  renovating  principle  is 
ever  ready  to  operate,  if  human  beings  will  yield  them- 
selves to  its  influences.  Conscience,  like  a  faithful 
monitor,  is  ever  warning  us  of  our  own  danger,  and  the 
grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  given  to  guide  us  in  the  path 
of  virtue  and  happiness. 

I  observed  that  you  might,  with  respect  to  your  present 
characters,  be  considered  as  constituting  four  distinct 


DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS.  19 

classes  ;  they  are  the  following  ;   1st,  the  idle  and  careless, 
%d,  the  gay  and  fashionable ;  3d,  the  moral;  &th,  the  pious. 

I  shall  first  consider  the  idle  and  careless,  those  who 
think  only  of  present  gratification.  This  class,  I  am 
sorry  to  say,  is  but  too  numerous  among  school-girls. 
Many  of  you  have  been  nursed  in  the  lap  of  affluence 
and  ease,  accustomed  from  your  infancy  to  all  the  grat- 
ifications which  parental  fondness,  aided  by  wealth,  could 
bestow  ;  alas  !  how  little  does  the  doating  parent  reflect 
when  tenderly  nurturing  a  beloved  child,  that  he  may 
be  administering  a  slow  poison,  which  will  infuse  itself 
through  the  whole  moral  system,  and  in  future  years 
render  his  child  imbecile  and  degraded! 

Luxury  has  a  most  decidedly  injurious  effect  upon 
our  moral  natures.  Do  you  doubt  this?  Look  into  the 
history  of  nations  and  of  individuals,  and  you  will  see 
them  almost  uniformly  corrupted  by  luxury.  The 
Romans  were  virtuous  until  enriched  by  the  spoils  of 
vanquished  nations.  Our  own  ancestors,  in  the  primi- 
tive poverty  and  simplicity  of  the  early  days  of  our  coun- 
try, showed  themselves  capable  of  high  and  noble 
actions ;  their  descendants  enriched  by  trade,  commerce, 
and  manufactures,  are,  it  is  to  be  feared,  degenerating 
from  the  lofty  character  which  was  exemplified  in  the 
fathers  of  the  revolution,  and  in  their  unostentatious 
wives  and  sisters.  And  yet  wealth  does  not,  necessarily, 
corrupt  the  mind ;  when  properly  used,  it  furnishes  the 
means  of  doing  good  to  others ;  of  assisting  to  promote 
the  noble  designs  of  such,  as  possess  vast  benevolence, 
without  the  pecuniary  means  of  carrying  their  plans  into 
effect.  It  is  by  wealth  that  we  can  obtain  the  best  means 
for  our  own  improvement,  in  the  purchase  of  valuable 
books,  in  visiting  interesting  works  of  nature  and  art, 
in  gaining  assistance  from  the  talents  and  information  of 
others,  and  in  bestowing  leisure  for  mental  cultiva- 
tion. 

But  how  do  the  class  of  pupils,  of  whom  I  am  speak- 
ing, view  the  wealth  which  their  parents  are  careful 
shall  follow  them  to  this  retreat?  How  do  they 
spend  the  money  thus  lavished  upon  them?  Besides 
furnishing  themselves  on  all  common  occasions  with 


20  DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS. 

those  eatables  which  are  so  injurious  to  health  and 
consequently  to  mental  energy,  we  see  some  descend- 
ing even  to  bribe  domestics  to  purchase  dainties,  at 
times  and  in  a  manner  forbidden  by  the  rules  of  the 
institution?  How  are  holidays  spent  by  such  a  pupil  1 
in  writing  letters  to  gladden  the  hearts  of  absent 
friends,  in  looking  into  the  state  of  her  wardrobe,  and 
repairing  such  articles  of  dress,  as  may  need  it ;  in 
putting  her  room  in  order,  in  paying  and  receiving  the 
visits  of  an  interesting  arid  intelligent  friend,  in  the 
perusal  of  instructive  books,  or  in  anticipating  some  of 
the  coming  school  exercises  in  order  to  be  prompt  in  all 
her  duties  1  Would  that  I  might  believe  that  thus  all  of 
you  did  spend  the  hours  which  are  at  your  own  disposal ; 
but  however  unpleasant  the  thought,  it  cannot  be  disguised 
trj#t  such  seasons  are  very  differently  passed  by  the  idle 
and  careless. 

Should  we  enter  the  room  of  such  a  pupil  on  a 
Wednesday  or  Saturday  afternoon,*  we  should  probably 
see  her  sitting  by  a  basket  of  nuts,  fruit,  or  confection- 
ary, her  dress  slatternly,  her  hair  disordered,  and  the 
appearance  of  the  room  in  perfect  harmony  with  that  of 
its  mistress.  Dismissing  this  disgusting  picture,  let  us 
consider  the  effect  of  such  sensual  indulgence.  Our 
young  miss  awakes  in  the  morning  with  a  head-ache,  she 
goes  to  the  breakfast-table  with  a  loathing  for  simple 
and  wholesome  food ;  when  the  bell  rings  for  study,  she 
sits  down  with  a  listless  and  vacant  mind,  opens  a 
book,  looks  upon  the  page,  and  perhaps  reads  the  words, 
but  if  she  attempts  to  investigate  a  subject  which 
requires  any  effort  of  mind,  she  feels  herself  inadequate 
to  the  task  ;  at  length  she  appears  before  her  teacher 
with  the  degraded  sense  of  her  own  mental  inferiority, 
and  stammers  out  an  excuse  about  the  head-ache,  want 
of  time,  &c.  We  might  follow  the  same  pupil  to  the 
public  examination,  and  see  her  exposing  her  ignorance 
to  the  chagrin  of  her  friends,  the  mortification  of  her 
teacher,  and  her  own  confusion.  I  have  already  dwelt 

*  At  these  periods  the  regular  exercises  of  the  institution  are 
suspended. 


DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS.  21 

longer  upon  this  character  than  I  intended ;  much  more 
might  with  truth  be  said,  to  heighten  its  deformity,  but 
I  gladly  turn  from  it.  I  am  not  willing  to  admit,  even 
to  myself  that  any  one  of  you  have  sat  for  the  picture  so 
far  delineated  :  but  if  any  can  see  in  it  her  own  like- 
ness, let  me  hope  that  she  may  be  induced  to  throw 
aside  these  habits  so  injurious  to  mental  improvement, 
and  attempt  to  render  herself  worthy  of  a  dignified  and 
honorable  station  in  society.  At  the  tender  moment  of 
parting  with  a  daughter,  to  leave  her  among  strang- 
ers, a  father  is  very  apt,  as  a  last  act  of  kindness,  to 
bestow  a  liberal  amount  of  pocket-money;  and  the 
mother  and  sisters  often  feel  themselves  bound  to  show 
their  affection  by  enclosing  money  in  letters.* 

The  next  class  of  pupils  which  we  are  to  consider 
includes  the  gay  and  fashionable ;  those  whose  highest 
object  in  the  attainment  of  an  education  is  to  enable 
themselves  to  show  ojfin  circles  of  fashion,  to  seem  to  be 
amiable  and  learned,  instead  of  being  so.  We  often  see 
such  exhibiting,  in  the  pursuit  of  certain  branches  of 
education,  a  becoming  diligence :  they  are  faithful  to 
their  lessons  in  music,  dancing,  drawing ;  and,  stimulat- 
ed by  the  wish  of  making  a  figure  at  examinations,  they 
are  sometimes  found  among  the  best  scholars  in  literary 
branches.  In  attendance  upon  a  bible  class  or  public 
worship,  such  pupils  are  generally  remiss,  and  in  the 
performance  of  moral  duties,  we  often  see  a  great  defi- 
ciency. They  are  usually  wanting  in  meekness  and 
lowliness  of  mind ;  if  a  school-mate  is  unfashionable 
in  her  dress,  or  rustic  in  her  manners,  she  is  con- 
demned to  neglect  and  contempt ;  or  if  a  teacher,  occu- 
pied with  higher  objects  than  personal  decoration,  ap- 
pears dressed  in  a  manner  not  correspondent  with  the 
latest  fashions,  too  often  do  this  class  of  pupils  show 
what  is  their  standard  of  merit  by  pertness  and  disre- 
spect. -We  shall  consider  hereafter  the  tendency  of  an 
undue  regard  to  fashion  and  fashionable  accomplish- 
ments. In  the  mean  time,  may  those  who  are  conscious 
of  erring  in  this  respect,  think  seriously  upon  the  subject, 

*  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  exposition  of  the  injury  caused  by 
these  supplies  may  deter  some  from  such  ill-judged  kindness. 


22  DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS. 

and  strive  to  gain  more  just  and  elevated  views  of  the 
concerns  and  objects  of  this  probationary  state. 

But  there  are  a  third  class  of  pupils  who  have  a  higher 
'standard  of  merit  than  fashion  and  who  are  above  the  gross 
enjoyments,  the  listless  ennui  which  marks  a  certain  class 
of  school-girls.  There  are  those,  who,  early  imbued  with 
virtuous  principle?,  and  a  regard  to  moral  obligations, 
would  grieve  to  be  found  wanting  in  any  duty  towards 
their  parents,  their  teachers,  or  their  companions.  Such 
pupils  are  exemplary  in  their  deportment  and  obedient  to 
rules ;  they  endeavor  to  make  the  most  of  the  advantages 
bestowed  upon  them;  and  like  the  young  man,  who,  af- 
ter enumerating  his  many  virtues,  asked  our  Saviour, 
'  what  lack  I  yet?'  such  may  complacently  suppose  they 
are  doing  all  that  can  be  required  of  them;  and  yet,  one 
thing  they  lack  ;  '  He  builds  too  low  who  builds  beneath 
the  skies.'  There  is  a  higher  and  a  holier  motive  than 
even  duty  to  a  parent  or  a  friend,  or  benevolence  to  our 
fellow-creatures  ;  piety  operating  upon  the  heart  is  the  vi- 
tal principle  which  gives  life  to  all  its  virtues. 

The  fourth  and  last  class  of  pupils  are  those,  who,  in- 
fluenced by  the  hopes  of  the  gospel,  act  not  with  refer- 
ence to  this  world  only,  but  to  eternity.  I  am  aware  that 
between  the  two  latter  classes  of  pupils  it  is  often  difficult 
to  discriminate  ;  and  far  be  it  from  me  to  sit  in  judgment 
upon  the  motives  of  any — to  say  of  any  individual  pupil, 
she  is  merely  a  moralist,  and  of  another,  she  is  pious. 
God,  who  knows  the  secret  motives  of  all,  seeth  those 
who  serve  him  in  sincerity  and  singleness  of  heart. 
'Not  every  one  that  saith  Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter  into 
the  kingdom  of  heaven,  but  he  that  doeth  the  will  of 
my  Father  in  heaven.'  It  is  riot  to  those  who  are  loud 
in  professions,  who  forsake  their  own  duties  in  order  to 
watch  the  conduct  of  others;  it  is  not  to  those  who  vir- 
tually say,  '  Stand  by,  I  am  holier  than  thou,'  that  we  look 
as  the  patterns  of  Christian  character.  Blessings  are  pro- 
nounced upon  the  meek  and  lowly,  the  poor  in  heart,  the 
peacemakers,  and  they  who  suffer  for  righteousness'  sake. 

The  members  of  this  institution  who  profess  to  be  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  ought  to  be  aware  of  their  high  respon- 
sibilities. Your  example  may  invite  others  to  seek  that 


DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS.  23 

religion  which  they  see  producing  in  you,  good  fruits  ;  or 
it  may  disgust  them,  if  accompanied  with  forbidding  and 
unpleasant  manners.  To  each  of  you,  the  question  should 
often  arise ;  What  should  be  my  walk  and  conversation 
under  my  present  circumstances'?  how  may  I,  while  here, 
adorn  the  religion  I  profess  1  Surrounded  as  you  are  by 
gay,  and  often  thoughtless  companions,  by  those  who  can- 
not appreciate  your  motives  of  action,  it  may  seem  to  you 
a  subject  of  doubt,  whether  you  should  not  wholly,  with- 
draw yourselves  from  society,  rather  than  incur  the  haz- 
ard of  lowering  your  own  standard  of  duty,  or  of  losing 
your  own  seriousness  amid  surrounding  levity. 

The  scriptures  command  Christians  to  come  out 
from  the  world,  to  separate  themselves  from  it.  Yet 
our  Saviour  himself  familiarly  associated  with  publi- 
cans and  sinners — he  went  to  their  entertainments  and 
conversed  with  them  in  public  places.  At  Cana  of  Gali- 
lee we  find  him  attending  a  wedding,  and  promoting  the 
festivities  of  the  occasion,  by  miraculously  changing  wa- 
ter into  wine.  The  Pharisees  indeed  reproach  him  for 
these  things  ;  they  follow  him  in  his  hours  of  social  inter- 
course, and  point  the  finger  of  scorn,  because  he  associ- 
ates with  sinners  ?  Yet  the  meek  and  humble  Jesus 
is  not  deterred  from  his  purpose  We  see  him  seated,  not 
among  a  few,  who  already  esteemed  themselves  righteous, 
but  with  the  multitude  ,  we  hear  him  in  mild  and  gentle 
accents  telling  them  to  knock  and  the  door  of  mercy  shall 
be  opened,  to  ask  and  they  shall  receive,  to  repent  and 
they  shall  be  forgiven,  to  go  in  peace  and  sin  no  more. 
His  kind  and  attractive  manner  first  drew  the  heart  to- 
wards him,  and  then  to  the  doctrine  which  he  taught. 

We  are  not  then  to  suppose  that  our  Saviour  intended 
his  followers  should  separate  themselves  from  the  world 
by  ceasing  to  hold  intercourse  with  it ;  we  cannot  be- 
lieve that  the  Christian,  as  some  zealots  teach,  is  in  the 
performance  of  his  highest  duty,  by  withdrawing  from 
the  world  and  burying  himself  in  a  cloister,  in  order  to 
give  his  heart  wholly  to  God  and  the  services  of  religion. 
How,  then,  you  may  ask,  are  we  to  separate  ourselves 
from  the  world  ?  We  answer,  by  piety,  meekness,  and 
readiness  to  do  good  to  others,  and  in  all  things  to  adorn 


24  DIFFERENT    CHARACTERS    OF    PUPILS. 

your  profession  ;  it  is  thus  that  you  should  distinguish  or 
separate  yourselves,  being  '  while  in,  above  the  world.' 
You  need  not  fear  to  follow  the  example  of  your  Saviour, 
who  mixed  with  the  multitude,  that  he  might  do  them 
good  ;  and  although  you  have  not  the  power,  miraculous- 
ly to  cure  diseases,  you  may  do  much  towards  healing 
the  moral  diseases  of  your  thoughtless  companions,  by 
seeking  occasions  to  give  them  good  counsel,  and  proving 
by  your  own  conduct  that  '  the  ways  of  wisdom  are 
pleasant,  and  all  her  paths  peace.' 

This  institution  has  at  all  times  numbered  among  its  mem- 
bers many  who  professed  to  enjoy  the  hopes  and  promises  of 
religion.  These  have  exerted  a  vast  and  salutary  influence 
upon  other  pupils  ;  yet  had  they  always  considered  their 
obligations  to  let  their  '  light  so  shine,  that  others,  seeing 
their  good  works,  might  glorify  their  Father  in  heaven/ 
their  influence  might  still  more  extensively  have  been  felt. 
Some  have  yielded  too  much  to  the  example  of  the  mere- 
ly fashionable,  the  gay  and  the  trifling,  and  instead  of 
firmly  standing  upon  the  ground  of  Christian  duty,  and 
refusing  to  countenance  any  thing  contrary  to  Christian 
obligation,  they  have  seemed  almost  fearful  of  being  re- 
cognized as  professors  of  religion,  and  with  the  disciple 
who  denied  his  Lord,  to  say  by  their  practice,  '  We  know 
not  the  man.' 

In  some  cases,  pious  and  conscientious  pupils,  disgust- 
ed with  the  levity  and  frivolity  of  many  of  their  fellow  stu- 
dents, have  coldly  withdrawn  from  any  intercourse  with 
them,  and  in  consequence  have  gained  the  reputation  of 
being  morose  and  unamiable.  A  feeling  of  mutual  jeal-> 
ousy  and  dislike  has  thus  taken  the  place  of  that  confi- 
dence and  affection  which  ought  to  prevail  among  mem- 
bers of  the  same  institution. 

You  will  at  once  see  the  evils  which  must  result  from 
such  a  state  of  things  ;  and  permit  me  to  hope  that  the 
pious  members  of  the  institution,  will  unite  with  me  in  en- 
deavoring to  lead  the  thoughtless  to  reflection,  and  to  ele- 
vate the  tone  of  moral  and  religious  feeling  among  us. 
And  that  you  may  be  enabled  to  be  useful,  strive  to  make 
yourselves  agreeable  ;  join  in  innocent  recreations,  and  do 
not  despise  external  graces,  or  a  suitable  attention  to 


NATURE  AND  OBJECT  OF  EDUCATION.        25 

dress  and  accomplishments.  Be  mild  and  courteous, 
dignified  and  exemplary,  and  you  will  command  an  in- 
fluence, which  neither  wealth  nor  fashion  can  gain;  an  influ- 
ence over  the  hearts  of  those  around  you,  and  thus  have 
it  in  your  power  to  arouse  the  careless  and  idle  to  a 
sense  of  duty,  to  enforce  upon  the  gay  and  thoughtless 
higher  and  better  motives,  and  to  convince  those  who 
depend  merely  on  a  cold  morality,  that  human  virtue  is  but 
a  shadow  when  unaccompanied  by  religious  affections. 

St.  Paul,  like  his  divine  master  became  '  all  things  to 
all  men,  that  he  might  by  all  means  save  some.'  '  Never/ 
says  an  English  writer,*  '  was  man  more  deeply  versed 
than  he,  in  the  knowledge  of  the  ways  which  lead  to  the 
human  heart ;  and  never  was  man  more  disposed  by  prin- 
ciple and  by  feeling  to  apply  that  knowledge  to  the  be- 
nevolent purpose  of  opening  the  heart  to  the  influence 
of  the  truth  which  saves  and  sanctifies.  Who  would  at- 
tempt to  portray  the  character  of  Paul  (or  who  would  re- 
cognize the  likeness  if  attempted)  without  the  kindness, 
the  gentleness,  the  suavity  and  sympathy  which  he  him- 
self copied  from  the  model  of  absolute  perfection.'  May 
you  my  dear  Christian  pupils,  in  these  respects,  imitate 
St.  Paul,  even  as  he  imitated  Christ. 


LECTURE  III. 

Education,  its  Nature  and  Object. 

THE  true  end  of  education,  is  to  prepare  the  young  for 
the  active  duties  of  life,  and  to  enable  them  to  fill  with 
propriety  those  stations  to  which,  by  Providence,  they 
maybe  called.  This  includes  also  a  preparation  for  eter- 
nity; for  we  cannot  live  well,  even  in  this  world  without 
those  dispositions  of  heart  which  are  necessary  to  fit  us  for 
heaven.  To  discharge  aright  the  duties  of  life,  requires 
not  only  that  the  intellect  shall  be  enlightened,  but  that  the 
heart  shall  be  purified.  A  mother  does  not  perform  her 

*  Rev.  H.  F.  Burder. 


26        NATURE  AND  OBJECT  OF  EDUCATION. 

whole  duty,  even  when  in  addition  to  providing  for  the 
wants  of  her  children,  and  improving  their  understanding^ 
she  sets  before  them  an  example  of  justice  and  benevo- 
lence, of  moderation  in  her  own  desires,  and  a  command 
over  her  own  passions  :  this  may  be  all  that  is  required  of 
a  heathen  mother  ;  but  the  Christian  female  must  go  with 
her  little  ones  to  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  to  seek  his  blessing ; 
she  must  strive  to  elevate  the  minds  of  her  offspring  by 
frequent  reference  to  a  future  state  ;  she  must  teach  them 
to  hold  the  world  and  its  pursuits  in  subserviency  to  more 
important  interests,  and  to  prize  above  all  things  that 
peace,  which  as  the  world  giveth  not,  neither  can  it  take 
away. 

Thus  comprehensive,  my  dear  girls,  is  education ; 
it  consists  in  training  the  body  to  healthful  exercises,  and 
elegant  accomplishments,  in  cultivating  and  developing 
the  mental  powers',  in  regulating  the  passions,  and  above 
all  informing  religious  habits.  * 

Many  appear  to  think  that  the  whole  business 
of  a  teacher  is,  to  impart  instruction  in  the  different 
branches  of  learning.  This  is  far  from  being  the 
most  anxious  concern  of  one  who  realizes  the  impor- 
tance of  early  discipline  of  the  passions,  and  of  early 
associations  upon  the  moral  character.  Instruction,  or 
the  communication  of  literary  and  scientific  knowledge, 
is  indeed,  but  a  small  part  of  education  ;  for  a  person  may 
be  learned  and  yet  have  been  very  badly  educated.  The 
great  thing  is  to  send  forth  the  young  fitted  for  the 
various  exigencies  of  life,  and  did  we  know  what  would 
be  the  future  situation  of  each  one  of  you,  we  might 
proceed  somewhat  differently  in  our  efforts  for  your 
improvement,  but  it  is  uncertain,  which  of  your  attain- 
ments in  literature,  and  science,  or  which  of  your 
personal  accomplishments  will  be  most  useful  to  you 

*  M.  Jullien,  in  his  '  Essai  General  d'  Education,5  says,  Educa- 
tion is  an  apprenticeship  for  life  ;  its  true  end  like  that  of  exist- 
ence is  well-being  or  happiness.  But  although  all  men  either  by 
reflection  or  instinct  seek  this  end,  although  all  desire  to  bo  happy, 
most  are  ignorant  of  what  happiness  really  consists  in,  what  are 
the  elements  which  compose  it,  and  the  means  of  obtaining  it.  Rea- 
son, observation  and  experience  appear  to  point  out  three  essen- 
tial and  necrssury  elements  of  happiness — health  of  body,  eleva- 
tion of  soul  and  cultivation  of  intellect. 


NATURE  AND  OBJECT  OF  EDUCATION.       27 

hereafter ;  whether  they  are  to  be  exercised  only  for  the 
improvement  and  delight  of  the  social  circle,  or  to  be 
the  means  of  gaining  your  own  support  and  that  of 
others,  who  may  be  dependent  upon  you. 

How  many  females,  who,  in  youth  had  cherished  the 
expectation  of  filling  a  splendid  station  in  life,  have  been 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  exerting  their  talents  in  order 
to  gain  a  subsistence.  You  are  all,  probably,  acquainted 
with  such ;  you  may  perhaps  have  heard  some  of  them 
say,  that  those  trials,  by  throwing  them  upon  their 
own  resources,  had  developed  the  latent  powers  of 
their  minds,  and  by  divesting  them  of  external  ad- 
vantages, had  rendered  them  more  intrinsically  valua- 
ble. Those  of  you,  who  now  enjoy  the  light  of  pros- 
perity, may  have  no  fear  that  your  situations  will 
ever  change ;  you  may  not  conceive  the  possibility  of 
suffering  those  reverses,  which  you  have  witnessed  in 
others.  But,  riches  are  proverbially  fleeting ;  a  storm  at 
sea  may  destroy  the  freighted  vessel  on  which  your  parents 
depend  for  wealth ;  fire  may  consume  their  property  ; 
the  failures  of  others  may  involve  them ;  the  channels  of 
trade  may,  be  diverted ;  manufacturing  interests  may 
decline,  or  landed  estates  may  sink  in  value ; — upon 
these,  and  a  thousand  other  chances,  does  the  uncertain 
tenure  of  worldly  wealth  depend. 

Some  of  you  may  expect  distinction  on  account  of 
friends  high  in  official  stations,  but  long  before  you  are 
prepared  to  take  an  active  part  in  life,  they  may  have 
sunk  into  obscurity.  In  this  country,  of  all  others,  the 
distinction  which  arises  from  public  offices  is  the  most 
transient  and  uncertain.  We  see  a  man  holding  the 
highest  offices  in  the  government ;  and  his  family  court- 
ed and  flattered  on  account  of  the  power  and  influence 
which  this  gives  him.  We  look  again,  and  this  same  indi- 
vidual, by  a  change  of  public  sentiment,  or  some  new  move- 
ment of  the  political  machine,  is  deprived  of  his  honors, 
his  family  are  neglected  and  forgotten,  while  their  pre- 
tended friends  are  bustling  onwards  to  pay  their  court 
to  the  rising  fortunes  of  another,  who  becomes  for  his 
short  hour  '  lord  of  the  ascendant.' 

How  important,  then,  that  all  of  you  should  provide 
yourselves  with  resources  against  a  day  of  change  ! 


28  NATURE    AND    OBJECT    OF   EDUCATION". 

These  resources  you  are  now  in  a  situation  to  secure,  in 
the  attainment  of  that  knowledge  and  those  accomplish- 
ments, which  the  present  wealth  of  your  parents  place 
within  your  reach.  The  above  suggestions  should  also 
induce  those  who  possess  present  advantages,  to  treat 
with  attention  such  as  are  less  favored  by  fortune,  but 
who  deserve  respect  for  their  morals  and  talents,  and 
who  may  be  destined  to  future  eminence. 

There  are  among  those  who  now  listen  to  me,  some 
who  have  early  tasted  affliction ;  some  to  whom  ad- 
versity is  familiar ;  these,  perhaps,  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  regard  themselves  as  destined  to  glide  through 
life  in  obscurity,  unnoticed  and  unknown.  But  the 
tempest  may  have  bowed  you  to  the  earth  only  that 
you  may  arise  strengthened  and  invigorated.  You 
have  seen  a  slender  plant  drooping  its  head  and 
lying  low  beneath  the  blast ;  but  the  storm  passed,  and 
the  plant  raised  itself  up,  exhibiting  new  verdure  and 
strength.  Even  so  it  may  be  with  you;  the  clouds 
which  darken  your  young  days  may  clear  away,  and  a 
brighter  sky  reveal  to  you  paths  of  usefulness  and 
honor.  In  your  future  prosperity,  you  may  be  able 
to  assist  by  your  bounty,  and  honor  by  your  notice 
tome  of  those  who  now  pass  by  you  with  neglect. 
Fake  courage,  then,  and  remember  that  to  a  certain 
legree,  especially  in  our  own  country,  every  one  is,  in  a 
legree,  the  '  artificer  of  his  own  fortune.' 

Can  we  find  no  cause  why  the  children  of  the  rich, 
setting  out  in  life  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, often  sink  into  insignificance,  while  their  more 
humble  competitors,  struggling  against  obstacles,  rise, 
higher  and  higher,  till  they  become  elevated  in  propor- 
tion to  their  former  depression  ?  Thus  you  may  have 
seen  a  tree  wither  from  excess  of  nourishment  and  care, 
while  the  mountain  pine,  neglected  and  exposed  to 
fierce  winds  and  raging  tempests,  took  strong  root,  and 
grew  into,  a  lofty  tree,  delighting  the  eye  by  its  strength 
and  beauty.  If  we  look  to  our  state  legislatures,  our 
national  congress,  and  the  highest  executive  and  judicial 
offices  in  the  country,  we  do  not  find  these  places 
chiefly  occupied  by  those  who  were  born  to  wealth,  or 
only  taught  the  pride  of  aristocratic  distinctions.  Most 


NATURE  AND  OBJECT  OP  EDUCATION.       29 

of  the  great  men  of  our  country  have  made  their  own 
fortunes ;  most  of  them  began  life,  knowing  that  they 
could  hope  for  no  aid  or  patronage,  but  must  rely  solely 
upon  the  energies  of  their  own  minds  and  the  blessing 
of  God. 

Ask  the  officers  of  colleges,  which  of  their  students  are 
most  distinguished  for  morality  and  talents — they  will  not 
answer  that  these  are  usually  the  sons  of  the  rich  and  the 
great,  those  who  feel  that  they  already  possess  sufficient 
recommendations  to  the  favor  of  the  world  ; — no,  we  shall 
be  told  that  the  highest  places  are  generally  filled  by  such 
students  as  are  struggling  against  difficulties,  in  the 
acquisition  of  that  intellectual  wealth  which  they  prize 
above  all  earthly  blessings,  and  by  means  of  which  they 
hope  to  render  themselves  respected  and  useful.  Similar 
facts  may  be  witnessed  in  female  institutions :  we  need 
not  look  beyond  our  own  walls  to  see  instances  of  minds 
debased  and  enervated,  by  the  consciousness  of  wealth, 
and  the  idea  that  this  alone  can  procure  honor  and  re- 
spect. But  can  you  feel  esteerfi  for  a  fellow  pupil,  who, 
spending  her  time  in  idleness,  exhibits  in  her  con- 
versation and  school  exercises  a  vacant  intellect  ?  And 
when  such  an  one  shall  go  out  into  the  world,  and  meet 
with  intelligent  men  and  women,  will  her  money  compen- 
sate for  her  want  of  knowledge  1  True  her  society  may 
be  courted  by  the  mercenary ;  but  she  cannot  avoid  per- 
ceiving the  motives  which  influence  them.  Could  we, 
my  dear  pupils,  read  the  hearts  of  many  who  live  in 
splendor,  we  should  see  them  writhing  under  the  morti- 
fying consciousness  of  their  own  real  insignificance. 

Some  of  you  may  be  ready  to  exclaim,  is  wealth  then 
a  curse,  and  are  we  to  esteem  ourselves  less  fortunate, 
than  if  we  were  poor  and  depressed  ?  Far  be  it  from  me 
to  teach  you  to  be  ungrateful  for  the  blessings  bestowed 
by  Providence — as  blessings  should  you  consider  wealth 
and  honorable  connexions ; — but  remember  too,  that  su- 
perior privileges  lay  upon  you  greater  responsibilities.  I 
am  happy  to  say  that,  in  this  institution,  many  of  its  most 
exemplary  and  intellectual  pupils  have  been  young  ladies 
of  high  expectations ;  and  when  we  find  wealth  little 
prized  for  its  own  sake,  valued  chiefly  for  the  opportunities 


30       NATURE  AND  OBJECT  OF  EDUCATION. 

it  affords  of  acquiring  knowledge,  and  rendering  its  pos- 
sessor useful,  we  feel  that  the  character  which  exhibits 
this  elevation  is  truly  deserving  of  our  regard. 

You  perceive  how  wide  and  extended  a  field  is  that  of 
education,  involving,  as  it  does,  your  temporal  and  eternal 
interests.  '  Get  wisdom  J  says  the  wise  king  of  Israel, 
'  and  with  all  thy  getting,  get  understanding.  When 
wisdom  entereth  into  the  heart,  and  knowledge  is  pleasant 
unto  thy  soul,  discretion  shall  preserve  thee,  understand- 
ing shall  keep  thee.  They  will  hear  and  increase  in 
learning,  and  they  that  have  understanding  shall  attain 
unto  wise  counsels.  The  knowledge  of  wisdom  shall  be 
sweet  unto  thy  soul :  and  when  thou  hast  found  it,  there 
shall  be  a  reward,  and  thy  expectation  shall  not  be  cut  off.' 
The  knoivledge  which  you  are  to  gain  is  as  various  as  are 
the  works  of  God,  and  the  laws  of  which  govern  these 
works.  The  wisdom  of  which  the  sacred  writer  speaks, 
implies  something  more  than  the  knowledge  of  human 
sciences ; — the  control  and  right  direction  of  our  passions, 
the  knowledge  of  our  own  hearts,  and  above  all,  the 
knowledge  of  God,  constitute  true  wisdom. 

While  you  are  making  acquisitions  in  the  various  branch- 
es of  study,  or  gaining  knowledge,  do  not  neglect  to 
seek  that  wisdom,  without  which  knowledge  is  worse  than 
useless.  Talents  and  learning  without  wisdom  are  like 
fire  or  instruments  of  death  in  the  hand  of  a  madman  ; 
desolation  and  destruction  to  all  that  is  good  and  truly 
valuable  in  morals  and  religion  mark  the  footsteps  of  minds 
thus  balanced.  They  are  the  moral  Siroccos  which,  with 
blighting  influence,  occasionally  sweep  over  the  intellect- 
ual world.  How  sickening  to  our  moral  nature,  to  behold 
one  of  the  noblest  works  of  the  Creator,  a  human  mind, 
employing  its  high  powers  in  cursing  its  fellow  beings  by 
leading  them  insidiously  from  the  paths  of  virtue !  or 
with  the  boldness  of  the  fallen  angels,  openly  daring  the 
Almighty  by  trampling  on  his  laws,  and  calling  on  others 
to  follow  its  impious  career  !  Such  has  been  the  course  of 
some  whose  infectious  writings  come  to  us,  stamped  with 
tho  seal  of  fashion.  Talents  have  been  too  blindly  wor- 
shipped, and  the  fearful  tendency  of  some  works  of  ge- 
nius has  been  too  often  unseen,  amid  the  splendid  corus- 
cations of  intellect  which  have  accompanied  them.  But 


NATURE    AND    OBJECT    OF    EDUCATION.  31 

the  lightning  is  not  less  dreadful  for  its  brilliancy,  nor  the 
Kalmia  less  poisonous  for  the  splendid  beauty  of  its  color- 
ing. To  be  badly  great,  is  to  be  cursed  indeed.  It  is  in- 
deed commendable  to  desire  to  be  great,  but  we  should 
desire  to  be  greatly  good.  It  is  true,  all  cannot  be  great, 
but  every  human  being  can  be  good. 

Our  object  in  the  following  Lectures,  will  be  to  consider 
how  you  may  best  attain  those  qualifications  which  will  fit 
you  for  the  duties  of  life,  and  for  enjoying  happiness  here- 
after. You  who  listen  to  me  are  all  gifted  by  the  Great 
Creator  of  mankind  with  rational  and  immortal  minds.  But 
a  few  years  ago,  you  were  thoughtless,  and  gay  children. 
You  do  not  remember  when  you  first  began  to  think  ; 
that  period  is  involved  in  as  much  mystery  as  the  dark- 
ness of  the  grave.  The  dawning  of  the  human  intellect, 
like  that  of  the  natural  day  is  gradual  and  undefined. 
Memory,  straying  in  the  twilight  of  childhood,  impercep- 
tibly finds  herself  lost  in  the  darkness  of  infancy.  That 
children  think  much,  and  admire  the  bright  and  beauti- 
ful objects  around  them,  long  before  they  can  by  words 
express  the  operations  of  their  minds,  is  plainly  mani- 
fested :  we  have  no  reason  however  to  believe  that  infants 
are  moral  agents.  It  is  when  the  child  begins  to  in- 
quire, '  What  am  I  ?  who  made  me  ?  and  for  what  purpose 
am  I  created  ?'  that  he  becomes  an  accountable  being. 

The  child  looks  upwards ;  he  beholds  the  glorious  sun 
and  moon,  the  brilliant  canopy  of  heaven  glittering  with 
its  spangled  myriads,  he  looks  upon  the  earth,  and  sees 
the  majestic  mountain,  the  expanse  of  waters,  he  beholds 
the  sweet  flowers,  which  seem  to  speak  to  his  heart  by 
their  fragrance,  no  less  than  to  delight  his  eyes  by  their 
beautiful  and  delicate  coloring;  he  contemplates  the  tow- 
ering oak  and  the  verdant  carpet  beneath  his  feet,  he 
listens,  and  his  ear  brings  to  his  soul  the  rush  of  waters, 
the  dashing  of  the  ocean,  the  murmur  of  the  rivulet,  and 
the  gentle  sighing  of  the  breeze.  The  animal  creation 
fills  his  heart  with  joy,  the  singing  of  birds,  the  meekness 
of  some  domestic  animals,  and  the  swiftness  and  beauty 
of  others,  all  strike  his  observant  mind.  But  with  still 
more  interest  does  he  view  the  intelligent  beings  around 
him 


32  NATURE    AND    OBJECT    OF    EDUCATION. 

That  lovely  and  patient  one,  whose  smiles  kindled 
the  first  emotion  in  his  young  heart,  whose  gentle 
bosom  had  been  his  pillow  in  suffering  and  in  joys ; 
the  many  kind  friends  who  have  been  wont  to  administer 
to  his  wants,  all  are  around  him,  and  he  feels  that  it  is 
pleasant  to  be  alive,  to  experience  so  much  kindness,  to 
behold  so  many  grand  and  beautiful  objects,  and  to  en- 
joy within  himself  the  sportive  glee  of  his  heart,  and  the 
bounding  elasticity  of  his  young  limbs. 

A  few  more  years,  and  the  season  of  childhood 
is  over — the  splendid  beauties  of  the  intellectual 
world  then  dawn  upon  the  youth,  and  his  heart  beats 
high  with  new  and  delightful  emotions.  But  still  a  few 
more  years,  and  the  scene  is  again  changed ;  the  friends 
of  his  youth  are  gone — some  have  been  taken  by  death, 
and  the  cold  heartlessness  of  the  world  has  withered  the 
affections  of  others.  His  own  frame  has  lost  its  vigor : 
the  silver  locks,  the  dim  eye,  and  the  tottering  step 
mark  the  period  of  old  age.  Nature  herself  seems  to  be 
growing  old  ;  the  sun  has  risen  upon  many  of  his  troubled 
days,  and  the  moon  has  witnessed  wearisome  nights.  He 
turns  from  these  things  which  remind  him  of  his  frequent 
disappointments,  and  sighing,  exclaims  '  Oh  that  I  had 
wings  like  a  dove,  then  would  I  fly  away  and  be  at  rest.' 
Death  which  had  once  appeared  so  terrible,  is  now  by 
the  Christian  welcomed  as  the  harbinger  of  peace,  as  the 
entrance  into  a  new  scene  of  existence,  where  friends 
will  never  part  nor  know  distrust,  where,  sinless  and  hap- 
py, all  the  better  feelings  of  the  heart  will  strengthen 
and  expand,  until  man  shall  become  perfect  and  glori- 
ous, as  the  angels  now  are. 

Since  this  is  our  destination,  to  live  on  earth  a  few  re- 
volving seasons,  and  then  to  die  and  to  be  renewed  in  a 
state  of  never-ending  existence,  let  us,  while  preparing  for 
life,  keep  in  view  the  great  end  for  which  life  is  given, 
and  endeavor  '  so  to  pass  through  things  temporal,  that 
we  lose  not  the  things  eternal.' 


IV 


PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION.  33 

LECTURE  IV. 

Private  and  Public  Education.— Public  Schools. 

MUCH  has  been  said  and  written  on  the  most  proper 
mode  of  conducting  female  education  ; — some  have  con- 
tended that  girls  should  be  brought  up  under  the  watch- 
ful eye  of  maternal  care  ;  while  others  have  considered 
the  emulation  which  springs  up  where  there  is  rivalship, 
to  be  important,  if  not  necessary,  to  the  full  development 
of  the  mental  powers.  Whether  a  young  lady  remains 
with  her  mother  during  the  period  allotted  for  her  educa- 
tion, or  whether  she  goes  abroad,  the  character  of  the 
latter  will  depend  much  upon  that  of  the  former.  The 
daughter's  ideas  of  dress,  of  expense,  of  what  qualities 
are  to  be  most  respected  and  valued  in  others,  and  her 
religious  impressions,  all  will,  in  some  degree  have  taken, 
their  color  from  this  earliest  guide. 

It  would  seem  that  of  all  others,  a  mother  was  the 
most  proper  person  to  superintend  the  education  of  a 
young  female.  The  maternal  watch  is  vigilant  and  ac- 
tive :  none  else  can  feel  the  deep  and  anxious  solicitude 
which  marks  a  mother's  care ;  and  yet  this  very  anxiety, 
by  becoming  too  intense,  may  be  injurious  to  the  child. 
The  quick  imagination  of  the  parent  seizes  upon  the  most 
trifling  indications  of  future  character,  and  she  is  alter- 
nately agonized  with  fear  or  delighted  with  hope.  These 
strong  emotions  are  not  favorable  to  a  steady  and  even 
course  of  education ;  for  as  one  or  the  other  feeling  pre- 
vails, there  is  danger  of  trifling  actions  becoming  the 
subjects  of  inadequate  blame  or  praise. 

It  would  seem  as  if  in  the  shade  of  domestic  life,  and 
under  the  care  of  a  wise  mother,  a  young  female  would 
blossom  into  maturity,  lovely  and  intelligent  and  fitted 
for  the  discharge  of  the  various  duties,  which  may  here- 
after devolve  upon  her.  This  idea  has  been  a  favorite 
one  with  the  poet  and  novelist,  who  have  delighted  in 
painting  their  heroines  as  combining  all  the  simplicity  of 
infancy  itself,  with  the  most  court-like  and  elegant  man- 
ners :  as  entirely  ignorant  of  the  world,  and  yet  know- 


34  PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION. 

ing  all  of  it  that  is  valuable  ;  as  amiable  and  docile, 
without  ever  having  suffered  restraint ;  as  generous  and 
disinterested,  and  yet  knowing  only  to  be  indulged  and 
caressed.  Now  this  is  all  absurd ;  reasoning  a  priori, 
we  should  say  that  to  know  the  world,  one  must  have  in- 
tercourse with  it,  and  facts  show  that  a  young  girl 
always  kept  at  home,  is  awkward  and  constrained  in 
her  manners,  often  selfish  and  unamiable  in  her  dispo- 
sition, and  ignorant  of  the  customs  of  society.  Her 
mother  may  have  moved  in  the  most  refined  circles,  be 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  forms  and  customs  of  po- 
lite intercourse  ;  she  may  have  been  faithful  in  imparting 
this  knowledge,  but  mere  rules  in  this  case  are  of  as 
little  use,  as  it  would  be  for  a  pupil  to  study  the  theory 
of  drawing  and  music,  without  practice.  Selfishness, 
pride  and  conceit  are  also  fostered  in  the  mind  of  one 
accustomed  to  feel  herself  the  great  centre  of  attraction, 
and  to  consider  every  one  around  her  as  subservient  to 
her  pleasure. 

With  respect  to  literary  improvement,  it  may  be 
thought  that  the  quiet  of  domestic  life  is  peculiarly  favor- 
able. We  will  suppose  the  mother  herself  to  be  entire- 
ly competent  to  instruct  in  all  necessary  branches  of  fe- 
male education.  Is  it  certain  that  she  will  have  the  re- 
quisite time  for  superintending  her  daughter's  education, 
and  conducting  it  on  those  systematic  principles  which 
will  ensure  a  suitable  attention  to  each  department  of 
knowledge  ?  The  mother,  however  competent  she  may 
be  to  the  task,  however  anxious  to  devote  herself  to  her 
daughter's  improvement,  has  many  other  claims  upon  her 
than  those  of  maternal  duty.  As  a  wife  she  must  share 
in  the  cares  and  anxieties  of  her  husband  ; — as  the  mis- 
tress of  a  family  she  must  direct  its  internal  con- 
cerns, and  this  alone  might  render  it  difficult  for  her  to 
give  that  individual  attention  to  literary  subjects,  which 
is  necessary  in  an  instructer.  Society  too  has  its  claims; 
and  her  time  is  always  liable  to  be  taken  up  with  a  friend- 
ly visit,  a  ceremonious  call,  or  an  appeal  to  charity  :  these 
interruptions  break  in  upon  the  regularity  of  the  pre- 
scribed systematic  division  of  time,  and  the  pupil  feel- 
ing it  very  uncertain  that  her  lesson  will,  if  learned,  be 


PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION.  35 

heard,  relaxes  her  diligence  and  acquires  a  habit  of  idle- 
ness and  procrastination.  We  have  said  nothing  of  the 
claims  that  younger  children  may  have  upon  the  mother's 
care,  or  of  various  other  indispensable  duties  ;  but  enough 
has  been  obesrved  to  show,  how  very  difficult  it  must  be  for 
the  most  intelligent  and  energetic  woman,  charged  with 
a  variety  of  cares,  to  bestow  that  time  and  attention  upon 
a  daughter's  education  which  is  necessary  for  the  suc- 
cessful cultivation  of  the  youthful  mind. 

I  have  seen  the  attempt  made  by  an  energetic  and 
judicious  woman,  whose  pecuniary  circumstances  being 
somewhat  embarrassed,  and  who,  entertaining  no  very 
favorable  opinion  of  public  schools,  resolved  to  educate 
her  daughter.  I  had  known  this  lady  in  her  youth,  and 
seen  her  the  admiration  and  pride  of  society ;  I  did  not 
not  see  her  again  until  her  eldest  daughter  was  about 
sixteen.  How  great  was  my  astonishment,  to  behold  in 
this  daughter,  an  awkward,  ignorant  girl,  with  less 
polish  of  manners  and  less  information  than  is  ordinarily 
possessed  by  children  of  ten  years  of  age.  All  who  know 
anything  of  instructing,  are  aware  of  the  time  and 
patience  which  is  requisite,  even  for  teaching  a  child  its 
letters :  add  to  this,  reading,  spelling,  writing,  geogra- 
phy, grammar,  arithmetic,  and  so  on,  to  the  higher 
branches  of  education,  and  it  will  not  appear  strange 
that  the  lady  just  mentioned  with  an  extensive  circle  of 
acquaintance,  and  several  younger  children,  should 
have  failed  in  her  attempt  to  educate  her  daughter. 
Seeing  at  length  the  impossibility  of  success  answer- 
able to  her  wishes,  she  placed  her  daughter  abroad  at 
a  public  school ;  but  the  confirmed  irregularity  of  her 
habits  was  unfavorable  to  improvement,  and  render- 
ed irksome  the  systematic  rules  to  which  she  was 
subjected.  She  felt,  too,  the  need  of  those  indulgences 
which  home  afforded,  and  which  had  greatly  tended  to 
render  her  intellect  dull  and  torpid.  From  these  circum- 
stances, rather  than  any  natural  inferiority  of  mind,  her 
improvement  was  not  creditable  either  to  herself,  or  to 
those  under  whose  care  she  was  placed. 

But  may  not  parents  provide  private  teachers  for  their 
children,  and  thus  keep  them  under  their  own  observa- 


36  PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION. 

tion?  Doubtless  this  is  more  practicable  where  the 
expense  can  be  afforded,  than  for  parents  themselves  to 
give  regular  instruction.  Young  persons  thus  educated 
may,  with  a  faithful  instructer,  make  tolerable  proficien- 
cy in  literature ;  but  there  is  great  danger  of  their 
becoming  selfish  and  haughty,  when  all  around  seem  to 
live  for  them.  Educated  under  the  paternal  roof,  they 
can  have  little  idea  of  a  world  in  which  their  interests 
will  clash  with  those  of  others,  and  where  forbearance 
and  self-denial  will  be  continually  needed.  Parents 
may  faithfully  warn  their  children  of  these  things ;  they 
may  tell  them  that  the  world  will  present  a  scene  very 
different  from  that  in  which  their  least  complaint 
receives  attention,  and  their  slightest  unhappiness  meets 
with  sympathy ;  but  the  habit  of  being  served  and 
indulged,  becomes  so  strong,  that  when  in  after  years  the 
scene  is  reversed,  and  the  petted  child  is  called  upon  to 
sacrifice  her  own  ease  and  comfort  for  that  of  others, 
she  finds  the  task  difficult  and  discouraging,  and  either 
shrinks  from  the  performance  of  known  duties,  or 
becomes  unhappy  in  the  discharge  of  them. 

We,  see  then,  that  however  beautiful  in  theory  it  may 
be  to  educate  girls  at  home,  it  is  not  easy  in  practice. 
The  mother  herself  who  sets  out  with  the  resolution  to 
persevere  in  teaching  her  child,  or  in  superintending  her 
education,  will  at  length  feel  that  there  are  difficulties 
and  evils  growing  out  of  her  excessive  anxiety ;  she  will 
see  that  by  close  and  constant  contact  with  her  child, 
and  a  habit  of  minute  attention,  she  is  prevented  from 
seeing  the  outline  of  her  character,  and  forming  and 
executing  those  general  rules  to  which  subordinate  ones 
should  be  subservient. 

I  have  heard  mothers  who  had  been  in  the  practice 
of  instructing  youth,  say  that  they  found  more  difficulty 
in  governing  and  managing  one  or  two  of  their  own 
children,  than  they  had  done  in  controlling  and  instruct- 
ing a  large  school.  This  may  be  easily  accounted  for  ; 
an  instructer  has,  or  ought  to  have,  her  mind  free  from 
other  cares  than  those  connected  with  her  profession ; 
if  conscientious,  she  feels  a  sufficient  degree  of  interest 
in  the  progress  and  character  of  her  pupils  to  induce 


PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION.  37 

her  to  make  every  possible  exertion,  but  she  does  not 
suffer  that  excessive  solicitude  which  often  impedes  the 
mother's  progress.  Physicians  frequently  profess  an  un- 
willingness to  prescribe  for  their  own  families,  on  the 
ground  that  too  great  anxiety  influences  their  judg- 
ment ; — in  all  cases  requiring  the  full  exercise  of  the  rea- 
soning powers,  it  is  important  that  the  mind  should,  as  lit- 
tle as  possible,  be  influenced  by  the  emotions. 

Parents  are  often  deceived  in  the  characters  of  their 
children.  We  have  at  this  place  frequent  opportuni- 
ties of  witnessing  this.  Sometimes  one  who  brings  to 
the  Seminary  a  bold  and  conceited  girl,  (excuse  me 
if  the  terms  seem  harsh)  says,  '  My  daughter  is  exces- 
sively diffident,  and  needs  to  be  brought  forward  and 
encouraged.'  At  another  time,  a  child  of  dull  intellect 
is  committed  to  our  care  as  a  remarkable  genius,  who 
is  capable  of  comprehending  the  most  abstruse  sciences. 
One  who  can  scarcely  raise  the  eight  notes  of  the  ga- 
mut is  frequently  considered  as  possessing  great  talents 
for  music ;  another  has  learned  to  daub  paper  with  water 
colors,  and  her  parents  wish  that  her  fine  taste  in 
drawing  may  be  cultivated,  although  the  poor  girl  may 
not  have  sufficient  correctness  of  eye  to  make  a  horizon- 
tal or  perpendicular  line.  These  mistakes  are  far  from 
being  confined  to  ignorant  parents;  parental  blindness 
often  falls  upon  those,  who  in  other  respects  are  wise  and 
enlightened. 

We  have,  in  the  preceding  remarks,  considered 
private  education  in  its  most  favorable  aspect,  not  taking 
into  account  the  numerous  cases  in  which  the  mother  is 
inadequate  to  the  task  of  instructing,  from  her  own 
defective  education,  or  from  feebleness  of  constitution. 
Many  young  females  being  early  deprived  of  a  mother's 
care,  the  father  may  be  compelled  to  send  his  daughters 
abroad  for  education.  It  seems,  then,  that  there  is  a  ne- 
cessity for  female  schools ;  and  yet,  strange  as  the  fact 
may  appear,  no  provision  for  such  an  object  has  ever  been 
made,  by  the  guardians  of  the  public  welfare.  Napo- 
leon indeed  established  the  school  of  St.  Denis,  for  educa- 
ting the  daughters  of  his  legion  of  honor ;  but  this  was  con- 
4 


38  PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION. 

ducted  on  an  imperfect  plan,  and  very  limited  in  its  ope~ 
ration. 

The  founder  of  this  institution  was  early  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  female  education.  Her  views  on 
this  subject  are  expressed  in  a  small  volume  published 
about  the  year  1818,  and  called  'Plan  of  a  Female 
Seminary,  by  Emma  Willard.'  The  author  sketched  the 
plan  of  a  Female  Seminary,  to  be  founded  and  endowed 
by  public  munificence.  She  urged  the  claims  of  the 
daughters  of  the  republic,  to  share,  in  some  small  degree, 
with  the  sons,  in  those  privileges  for  mental  improvement 
which  were  so  abundantly  bestowed  upon  the  latter. 
After  pleading  the  justice  of  the  claim  and  the  expediency 
of  granting  it,  as  proved  by  a  variety  of  important  consid- 
erations, she  thus  remarks  of  female  education  in  reference 
to  national  character  and  glory  : — ( Ages  have  rolled  away ; 
barbarians  have  trodden  the  weaker  sex  beneath  their  feet  \ 
tyrants  have  robbed  us  the  of  present  light  of  heaven, 
and  fain  would  take  its  future.  Nations,  calling  them- 
selves polite,  have  made  us  the  fancied  idols  of  a 
ridiculous  worship,  and  we  have  repaid  them  with  ruin 
for  their  folly.  But  where  is  that  wise  and  heroic  coun- 
try, which  has  considered  that  our  rights  are  sacred, 
though  we  cannot  defend  them  ?  that,  though  a  weaker, 
we  are  an  essential  part  of  the  body  politic,  whose  cor- 
ruption or  improvement  must  affect  the  whole?  and 
which,  having  thus  considered,  has  sought  to  give  us 
by  education,  that  rank  in  the  scale  of  being,  to  which 
our  importance  entitles  us.  History  shows  not  that 
country.  It  shows  many,  whose  legislatures  have 
sought  to  improve  their  various  vegetable  productions, 
and  their  breeds  of  useful  brutes ;  but  none,  whose  pub- 
lic councils  have  made  it  an  object  of  their  deliberations, 
to  improve  the  character  of  their  women.  Yet  though 
history  lifts  not  her  finger  to  such  an  one,  anticipation 
does.  She  points  to  a  nation,  which,  having  thrown  off 
the  shackles  of  authority  and  precedent,  shrinks  not 
from  schemes  of  improvement,  because  other  nations 
have  never  attempted  them ;  but  which,  in  its  pride  of 
independence,  would  rather  lead  than  follow,  in  the 
march  of  human  improvement;  a  nation,  wise  and 


PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION.  39 

magnanimous  to  plan,  enterprising  to  undertake,  and 
rich  in  resources  to  execute.' 

The  late  Governor  Clinton  entered  warmly  into  the 
views  of  Mrs.  Willard  :  he  encouraged  her  to  petition  the 
legislature  of  New  York,  and  in  a  message  to  that  body, 
publicly  expressed  his  own  opinions  with  respect  to  the 
justice  of  the  claim.  The  novelty  of  the  petition  caused 
considerable  sensation,  arid  gave  rise  to  much  discussion, 
both  in  the  House  Jind  abroad.  The  more  enlightened 
members  seemed,  generally,  in  favor  of  considering  fe- 
males as  the  legitimate  children  of  the  state,  and  making 
some  provision  for  their  intellectual  improvement.  There 
were  those,  however,  who  gravely  asserted  in  the  public 
council  of  the  state,  that  '  learning  was  of  little  use  to 
women,  as  it  would  tend  to  lead  them  from  their  own 
sphere  of  domestic  duties,  and  thus  prove  injurious  to  the 
interests  of  society.'  The  bill  for  an  endowment  of  a 
Female  Seminary,  after  having  received  a  favorable 
report  from  the  committee,  to  whom  it  was  referred, 
was  defeated  through  the  influence  of  those,  who  with- 
out attempting  to  deny  the  right  which  was  claimed, 
thought  it  should  be  waived  on  the  ground  of  the  evils 
which  might  result,  from  enlightening  the  minds  of 
those,  who  were  destined  to  a  limited  and  subordinate 
sphere. 

It  is  upon  a  similar  mode  of  reasoning  that  the  slave- 
holding  States  found  their  objections  to  the  instruction  of 
those  degraded  beings,  who  are  entailed  upon  them,  a 
curse  which  they  would  gladly  shake  off.  As  respects 
the  slave,  this  reasoning  is  undoubtedly  correct ;  let  the 
black  population  of  the  south  be  taught  that  they  in  fact 
possess  the  greater  physical  power ;  let  their  minds  be 
opened  to  the  truths  of  man's  equality  by  nature,  and  of 
the  unjust  tenure  by  which  they  are  kept  in  bondage  ; 
let  them  have  the  means  of  communicating  with  each 
other  from  distant  places,  thus  enabling  them  to  act  in  con- 
cert ;  let  all  this  be  done,  and  the  fair  regions  of  the  south 
would  soon  present  one  universal  scene  of  blood  and 
carnage.  While  we  deplore  a  necessity  founded  on  the 
principle  of  self-defence,  which  holds  in  darkness  so 
great  a  portion  of  human  intellect,  we  cannot  but  admit 


40  PRIVATE    AND    PUBLIC    EDUCATION. 

that  such  a  necessity  does,  in  the  present  state  of  things, 
exist. 

But  let  the  question  come  fairly  before  those  who 
object  to  female  improvement  on  grounds,  which  if  not 
similar,  are  certainly  analogous.  Neither  the  right 
of  holding  slaves  or  keeping  them  in  ignorance  is  now 
claimed ;  it  is  wholly  a  matter  of  expediency.  The 
rights  which  the  stronger  sex  possess  of  keeping  the 
weaker  in  a  state  of  intellectual  bondage  and  darkness 
is  no  less  questionable.  Let  it  then  be  considered  on 
the  ground  of  expediency.  What  would  be  the  state  of 
society,  if  females  were  generally  taught  the  laws  of  the 
material  and  mental  world,  the  nature  of  right  and 
obligation,  their  own  duties,  and  their  high  responsi- 
bilities as  moral  and  intellectual  beings  ?  Would  such 
Knowledge  be  likely  to  cause  them  to  forsake  the  path 
of  duty,  and  to  seek  a  sphere  of  action,  which,  from 
knowing  the  constitution  of  society,,  and  especially  the 
nature  of  their  own  obligations,  they  perceive  does  not 
belong  to  them  ?  There  is  an  absurdity  in  such  suppo- 
sitions; and  if  a  Mary  Wolstoncraft,  or  a  Frances 
Wright,  have  thrown  aside  that  delicacy  which  is  the 
crowning  ornament  of  the  female  character,  if  they  have 
urged  the  rights  of  their  sex  to  share  in  public  offices  and 
in  the  command  of  armies; — if  they  have  demanded  that 
they  shall  be  permitted  to  leave  the  sacred  hearth,  the 
domestic  altar,  and  all  the  delights  and  duties  of  home,  to 
mingle  in  political  commotions  or  the  din  of  arms,  they 
have  but  expressed  the  overflowings  of  their  own  rest- 
less spirits,  their  own  unnatural  and  depraved  ambition. 
They  are  riot  to  be  considered  as  the  deputed  represent- 
atives of  our  sex;  they  have  thrown  off  the  female 
character,  and  deserve  no  longer  to  be  recognized  as 
women ;  they  are  monsters,  a  kind  of  lusus  natura, 
who  have  amused  the  world  to  the  great  injury  of  that  sex 
whom  they  have  pretended  to  defend. 

But  let  us  look  to  such  women  as  Hannah  More,  Ma- 
ria Edgeworth,  Mrs.  Ilemans  ;  and,  in  our  own  country, 
many  others  equally  distinguished  in  the  walks  of  litera- 
ture;— are  such  disorganizers  of  society,  pedantic,  un- 
femiriine,  neglectful  of  duty  in  their  various  domestic  re- 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS.  41 

lations?  Are  they  not  generally  equally  distinguished  in 
private  life  for  their  amiable  and  domestic  qualities,  and 
for  a  faithful  discharge  of  their  relative  duties,  as  in  pub- 
lic for  their  high  intellectual  powers  ? 

My  dear  pupils,  may  the  whole  tenor  of  your  own  lives 
be  a  constant  refutation  of  the  degrading  assertion,  that 
'woman  must  be  ignorant  in  order  to  be  useful*  On 
you  the  attention  of  many  is  fixed,  and  your  future 
conduct,  will  be  hereafter  referred  to  as  proving  or 
disproving  the  problem,  '  Is  it  for  the  good  of  society 
that  women  shall  receive  a  liberal  and  enlarged  course 
of  education  ?' 


LECTURE  V. 

Public  Schools. 

IT  may  be  said,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  finding  schools 
enough  where  young  ladies  can  be  placed  for  their  ed- 
ucation. True,  there  is  no  want  of  schools ;  but  how 
miserably  defective  are  many  of  them,  as  respects  the 
qualifications  of  teachers  and  their  facilities  for  giving 
instruction. 

Some  lady  of  fashion,  after  a  few  years  spent  in  gaining 
superficial  accomplishments,  and  a  few  more  in  showing 
herself  off — by  some  means,  perhaps  an  unfortunate  mar- 
riage, the  loss  of  friends  and  fortune,  finds  herself  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  gaining  her  own  support.  She  opens  a 
boarding-school,  and  parents,  charmed  with  the  elegant 
manners  of  one,  whose  exterior  graces  have  alone  been 
cultivated,  entrust  her  with  the  care  of  instructing  their 
daughters,  not  only  in  literature  and  science,  but  in  mo* 
rality  and  religion.  But  what  can  be  expected  of  one,  who 
knows  nothing  of  a  regular  course  of  mental  discipline, 
and  who  never  felt  the  obligations  of  morality  or  the  sanc- 
tions of  religion  ?  *  We  need  not  be  surprised  to  see  the 

*  Miss  Edgeworth  relates  a  story  of  an  elegant  and  accomplish- 
ed French  opera  dancer,  who  applied  to  a  gentleman  for  a  recom- 

4* 


42  PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

pupils  of  such  instructers  setting  a  high  value  upon  ex- 
ternal graces>  and  despising  alike  an  unfashionable  scru- 
pulousness of  conscience  and  the  real  elevation  of  a  cul- 
tivated mind.  They  are  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  art 
of  seeming  to  be  mild  and  gentle,  and  are  taught  to  dis- 
course with  seeming  knowledge  of  things  of  which  they  are 
ignorant.  The  same  period  of  time,  under  different  aus- 
pices would  have  sufficed  to  have  given  them  the  sub- 
stance instead  of  the  shadow ;  to  have  rendered  the  gem 
truly  valuable,  instead  of  imparting  to  it  a  fictitious  lustre. 
Who  that  looks  upon  such  a  being  with  a  sense  of  her 
high  responsibilities,  but  must  sigh  to  behold  her  devoting 
the  few  probationary  years  of  life  in  the  mere  acquisition 
of  personal  accomplishments  1  Alas,  they  reflect  not  that 
the  sweetest  voice  of  music  will  be  silent  in  the  grave,  the 
most  graceful  form  that  glides  through  the  dance  will 
moulder  into  dust ;  while  the  soul,  with  its  treasures  of 
knowledge  and  piety,  will  continue  to  exist  through  the 
boundless  ages  of  eternity. 

But  I  forbear  to  dwell  upon  a  picture  from  which  the 
reflecting  mind  recoils,  that  of  a  young  female  placed  in 
the  care  of  one  who  would  mislead  her,  with  respect  to 
what  is  truly  valuable  in  education,  and  the  necessa- 
ry preparation  for  future  life.  I  would  gladly  believe 
such  instances  of  misplaced  confidence  are  rare,  and  that 
the  greater  number  of  those  who  engage  in  the  business 
of  education,  are  aware  of  their  great  responsibility,  and 
anxious  for  the  moral  character  of  their  pupils,  as  well  as 
their  perfection  in  personal  accomplishments,  and  their 
progress  in  literary  attainments. 

And  yet,  with  all  the  zeal,  talents  and  virtue,  which 

mendation  to  an  English  family  as  a  governess.  On  observing 
that  her  request  appeared  to  excite  some  surprise,  she  said,  *  You 
surely  do  not  doubt  my  capability — do  I  not  speak  French  with 
the  true  Parisian  accent  ?  and  as  for  music  and  dancing,  I  can  cer- 
tainly teach  these  to  any  young  person.'  The  gentleman  being 
thus  pressed,  was  obliged  to  say  that  most  mothers  would  be  in- 
quisitive about  the  moral  character  of  the  person  to  whom  they 
entrusted  their  daughters.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  such  is  the  pre- 
vailing admiration  for  accomplishments  in  our  country,  especially' 
in  some  of  our  cities,  that  a  governess  or  teacher,  possessing  the 
qualifications  of  the  opera  singer,  would  find  too  many  parents 
willing  to  waive  the  subject  of  morality. 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS.  43 

any  female  teacher  ever  possessed,  she  cannot  compen- 
sate her  pupils  for  the  want  of  facilities  for  improve- 
ment. Upon  the  former  method  of  conducting  schools, 
a  &ingle  teacher  often  had  the  charge  of  forty  or  fifty 
pupils,  assembled  in  one  apartment,  where  writing,  em- 
broidery, rhetoric,  philosophy,  painting,  arithmetic,  che- 
mistry and  spelling,  were  all  mingled  together,  in  a  cha- 
otic confusion.  The  teacher,  with  no  kind  of  appara- 
tus for  illustrations,  no  leisure  for  investigation,  scarcely 
had  time  to  hear  a  rapid  recitation  from  memory  of  the 
lessons  of  each  class,  and  this  too  while  presiding  in  the 
school,  called  upon  to  make  pens,  to  look  over  sums,  to 
correct  a  drawing,  or  to  point  out  the  proper  shades 
for  the  embroidery  of  a  flower.*  This,  indeed,  is  a 
striking  contrast  with  your  present  advantages.  You 
smile  at  the  picture,  as  if  it  were  drawn  to  amuse  you  ; 
but  it  is  taken  from  reminiscences  of  my  own  school  days, 
and  the  painful  and  vivid  recollections  of  later  years,  in 
which,  by  sad  experience,  I  learned  to  feel  the  trials  of 
presiding  over  a  school  thus  organized . 

To  a  mind  thirsting  for  the  pure  waters  of  knowledge, 
it  is  tantalizing  in  the  extreme,  to  be  condemned  to  see 
the  fountain  in  the  far  off  distance,  to  taste  a  few  scanty 
drops,  and  yet  never  be  allowed  to  gain  a  nearer  access. 
You  who  are  provided  with  facilities  for  attaining  this 
fountain,  should  learn  duly  to  appreciate  and  improve 
them.  You;  can  retire  to  your  own  rooms  for  study, 
and  at  all  suitable  times,  have  access  to  teachers,  who, 
devoted  to  their  particular  departments  of  learning 
have  the  opportunity  of  preparing  themselves  for  their 
duties.  You  have  recitation  rooms,  where  each  particu- 
lar branch  of  knowledge  receives  undivided  attention. 
In  chemistry,  mineralogy  and  botany,  the  objects  of 
investigation  are  presented  to  your  senses.  The  very  at- 

*  There  are  still  many  female  schools  in  our  country  where  sim- 
ilar scenes  are  presented,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  embroid- 
ery, which  is  now  generally  laid  aside,  although  other  kinds  of 
needle-work  are  often  substituted  for  it.  But  parents  should  not  be 
so  unreasonable  as  to  expect  the  improvement  of  their  daughters 
under  such  disadvantages.  It  is  true  that  they  do  sometimes  learn  ; 
but  at  best,  both  teachers  and  pupils  must  proceed  under  great  dis- 
couragements. 


44  PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

mosphere  around  you  is  redolent  of  literature  ;  not  that 
which  is  exhaled  from  the  muddy  waters  of  abridgements 
and  compendiums,  but  from  the  copious  and  unadultera- 
ted fountains  of  knowledge. 

I  trust,  my  dear  pupils,  that  you  are  grateful  for 
the  higher  standard  of  female  education  which  now  pre- 
vails, and  for  your  own  advantages.  These  you  owe  to 
the  devoted  zeal  of  your  beloved  Principal,  and  to  the 
liberality  of  the  city  of  Troy.  The  latter  has  done  what 
the  legislature  of  the  state  refused  to  do  ;  it  has  advanced 
funds  for  the  purchase  of  the  extensive  grounds  now  ap- 
propriated to  the  use  of  the  Seminary,  and  for  the  erec- 
tion of  the  spacious  and  commodious  building  we  now 
occupy. 

With  all  the  advantages  which  you  enjoy,  you  are  ex- 
'  posed  to  some  dangers,  from  which,  under  the  paternal 
roof,  you  might  be  shielded.  I  mean  dangers  arising  from 
bad  example,  and  the  too  prevalent  influence  of  a  false 
standard  of  merit.  In  a  public  school,  where  many 
young  persons  form  a  collective  mass,  there  are  dangers 
arising  from  their  effects  upon  each  other.  c  As  a  lit- 
tle leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump/  so  do  pride,  vani- 
ty, and  disregard  to  moral  and  religious  principles,  spread 
from  one  and  contaminate  many. 

Each  of  you  are  perhaps  ready  to  exclaim,  '  Far  be  it 
from  me  to  set  an  example  that  may  injure  the  charac- 
ters of  any  of  my  companions.' — I  can  readily  believe 
that  none  of  you  would  willingly  become  an  agent  of  evil, 
a  corrupter  of  others  :  none  of  you  would  say,  '  I  consid- 
er fashisonable  dress  and  manners  more  respectable  than 
virtuous  principles ;'  but  are  there  not  some  of  you  who,  by 
your  actions,  lead  others  to  suppose  such  is  your  opinion  ? 
When  a  stranger  arrives  among  you,  what  is  the  first  inqui- 
ry of  many  ?  '  Is  she  handsome?  how  is  she  dressed  ?  is 
she  rich,  fashionable  and  genteel?'  Would  it  not  natu- 
rally be  inferred  from  this,  that  you  considered  these  the 
most  important  qualifications?  How  seldom  do  you  hear 
the  questions,  *  Is  she  pious,  well  informed  or  amia- 
ble?' Now  there  is  always  danger  that  young  persona 
will  acquire  false  ideas  of  what  is  truly  estimable  :  espe- 
cially do  their  standards  of  excellence  depend  much  up- 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS.  45 

on  the  opinions  of  those  around  them.  All  the  good  in- 
struction given  pupils  by  their  teachers,  may  be  counter- 
acted by  accidental  associations.  If  you  are  told  that 
virtue  is  more  to  be  desired  than  beauty,  and  piety  than 
elegant  accomplishments,  and  yet  you  see  the  virtuous 
and  pious  neglected  by  certain  young  ladies,  while  ex- 
ternal qualifications  seern  to  give  a  right  to  a  kind  of  ex- 
clusiveness  and  eminence — of  how  much  greater  influence 
may  be  this  example  than  the  precept ! 

Philosophers  have  not  erred  in  considering  the  pecu- 
liar characters  of  individuals  as  greatly  modified  by  acci- 
dental circumstances.  The  human  mind  is  so  constitu- 
ted that  what  becomes  common  ceases  to  make  an  im- 
pression ;  the  attention  is  not  aroused  by  the  recurrence 
of  what  is  expected  :  thus,  when  you  meet  in  this  place, 
it  is  a  thing  of  course  for  you  to  be  reminded  of  your  du- 
ty, and  to  hear  moral  reflections  ;  many  of  you,  perhaps, 
compose  yourselves  into  a  kind  of  lethargy,  taking  for 
granted  that  good  things  will  be  said,  and  that  they  will 
undoubtedly  tend  to  your  benefit,  although  you  may  nei- 
ther listen  to  the  counsel,  or  practise  it.  So  in  your  recita- 
tion rooms,  you  expect  explanations  of  grammar,  rhet- 
oric, mathematics,  &c.;  and  your  attention  fails  of  being 
arrested.  Let  but  the  same  moral  remarks  or  illustrations, 
the  same  explanations  be  heard  by  you  in  some  unexpect- 
ed time  or  place,  and  your  minds  spontaneously  open  to 
receive  the  truths.  Thus  the  Lectures  to  which  you  now 
listen  with  a  respectful,  though  it  may  be  in  some  cases 
with  a  vacant  manner,  may  meet  your  eye,  when  far  from 
the  scenes  with  which  you  now  are  familiar ;  far  from  the 
friend  who  now  addresses  you,  and  whose  voice  may  then 
be  forever  silent.  How  quickly  then  would  your  atten- 
tion be  aroused ;  how  rapidly  would  recollection  glance  at 
one  past  scene  after  another,  the  various  characters  and 
events  which  since  your  school  days  had  given  coloring  to 
your  life  ;  and  how  deeply  you  might  regret  that  you  had 
not  listened  to  that  admonition  which  bade  you  beware 
how  you  suffered  your  standard  of  virtue  and  merit  to  be 
unduly  influenced  by  casual  circumstances. 

Let  fashion  direct  the  form  of  a  hat,  the  cut  of  a  sleeve, 
and  we  will  even  allow  her  an  influence  over  manners 


46  PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

and  deportment ;  but  let  her  not  presume  to  enter  the  sa- 
cred precincts  of  virtue,  to  weigh  against  moral  worth 
the  gaudy  plumage  of  which  she  boasts,  or  with  her  light 
wand  to  expel  conscience,  that  stern  and  faithful  monitor, 
from  her  guardianship  over  the  heart. 

You  see,  my  dear  girls,  how  important  it  is  that  your  pre- 
possessions should  be  on  the  side  of  virtue.  Among  the 
number  with  whom  you  here  associate,  you  will  not  fail  of 
finding  some  who  entertain  false  ideas  with  respect  to  char- 
acter ;  and  you  will  be  in  great  danger  of  lowering  your 
own  standard  of  moral  feeling,  unless  you  learn  to  ex- 
amine for  yourselves,  and  to  watch  over  your  accidental 
associations  of  thought. 

It  is  indeed  of  the  utmost  importance,  that,  in  public 
institutions,  a  high  moral  standard  should  exist;  that  the 
hearts  of  its  pupils,  not  only  on  their  own  account,  but  for 
the  sake  of  those  who  are  associated  with  them  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  secured  in  behalf  of  correct  principles. 
Especially  is  it  necessary  that  a  balance  on  the  side  of 
virtue  should  prevail;  this  will  produce  harmony  in  the 
support  of  what  is  right  and  good  : — pupils  who  enter  such 
an  institution,  find  the  work  of  self-government  and  of  vir- 
tuous training  almost  accomplished  for  them. 

In  families,  we  see,  in  general,  prevailing  characteris- 
tics. Some  aim  chiefly  at  holding  a  high  rank  in  fash- 
ionable life  ; — without  seeming  to  possess  much  natural  af- 
fection, and  while  in  private  very  deficient  in  kind  and 
disinterested  offices  among  themselves,  they  endeavor, 
by  various  artifices,  to  set  each  other  off  before  the  world. 
This  is  wholly  the  result  of  selfishness  :  they  wish  their 
brother,  sister,  or  cousin  to  appear  genteel,  because  the 
reverse,  they  think,  would  disgrace  themselves.  It  would 
be  a  fatal  blow  to  be  thought  to  have  vulgar  relations  :  of 
the  moral  character  of  those  relations,  they  take  little 
trouble ;  for,  as  in  the  circle  in  which  they  are  proud  to 
move,  morality  is  out  of  the  question,  so  long  as  a  fair 
outside  appears,  they  make  clean  the  externals,  but  with- 
in are  full  of  strifes,  envyings,  and  deceit.  Sould  we  take 
a  glance  behind  the  curtain,  and  view  the  domes- 
tic life  of  a  family  where  no  moral  or  religious  prin- 
ciple binds  together  those  whose  interests  are  constant* 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS.  47 

ly  clashing,  and  who  need  mutual  self-denial  and  for- 
bearance, what  scenes  would  present  themselves ! 
Here  the  mask  is  thrown  off,  and  each  understanding  the 
game  which  is  going  on,  can  feel  no  confidence  that  he 
or  she  in  their  turn  is  not  to  be  deceived.  Are  there 
no  females  who  are  gentle  as  zephyrs  before  the  world, 
and  in  private  blustering  as  the  north  wind  ?  are  there 
not  those  who  seem  to  have  two  faces,  one  decked  in 
smiles  and  tender  glances,  the  other  distorted  with  evil 
passions  ?  Suppose  one  of  the  other  sex  meets  in  the 
circles  of  fashion  with  an  angelic  creature,  whose  face 
seems  the  very  image  of  moral  virtue  ;  her  sweet  accents 
and  winning  smiles  sink  into  the  heart,  and  he  feels  that 
she  is  the  being  to  make  glad  his  future  path  in  life.  With 
a  trembling  heart,  he  asks  from  her  lips  the  sentence  on 
which  his  earthly  all  depends :  if  he  is  rich,  handsome 
and  genteel,  the  votaries  of  fashion  does  not  keep  him 
long  in  suspense,  for  the  great  object  of  her  artifices  is  to 
be  consummated  by  such  an  union.  Alas,  poor  youth,  thy 
destiny  in  this  world  is  indeed  sealed  !  thou  art  like  the  fly 
caught  in  the  spider's  web  ;  and  too  late  wilt  thou  see 
thine  own  folly.  For  a  little  time  the  mask  may  still  be 
worn,  and  if  there  are  some  lingering  sentiments  of  moral 
beauty  in  the  mind  of  the  fashionable  bride,  she  will  per- 
haps intend  always  to  appear  to  be,  what  she  knows  her 
husband  thinks  she  is ;  but  at  the  first  opposition  to  her 
own  will,  the  first  call  upon  herself-denial  and  disinterest- 
edness, the  disguise  is  dropped,  and  the  traces  of  beauty 
are  no  longer  visible  to  the  eye  of  the  appalled  husband ! 

You  may  feel  that  I  am  severe  upon  my  own  sex.  The 
vices  and  deceptions  of  the  other,  it  is  not  now  my  prov- 
ince to  expose.  It  is  probable,  that  in  most  cases,  the 
cheat  is  mutual ;  and  when  the  mask  which  concealed 
the  character  of  one,  drops  off,  the  assumed  disguise  of 
the  other  is  not  long  retained  ;  and  that  both  parties  are 
left  to  gaze  upon  each  other  with  mutual  horror  and  dis- 
gust. 

What  a  picture  of  human  life  is  this  !  And,  my  dear 
girls,  can  you  wonder  that  we,  to  whom  the  forming  of 
your  characters  are  committed,  should  so  anxiously  de- 
sire that  you  may  indeed  be  all  that  we  would  have  you  seem 
to  be  ?  You  are  now  young ;  your  hearts  are  not  yet  so- 


48  PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 

phisticated  by  the  influence  of  a  life  of  pleasure  and  dissi- 
pation. An  occasional  glance  at  such  scenes  must  have 
shown  you  how  strongly  fortified  your  minds  should  be  with 
the  principles  of  religion  and  virtue,  to  enable  you  to  re- 
sist their  allurements.  Here  then,  at  this  place,  where  the 
youthful  mind  is  in  a  measure  to  be  formed,  and  where  it 
is  to  be  fortified  against  the  seductions  of  the  world,  how 
necessary  it  is  that  an  elevated  standard  of  moral  char- 
acter should  prevail  !  If  even  here,  fashion  can  enthral 
you  with  her  fetters,  restraining  the  spontaneous  effusions 
of  your  youthful  hearts,  directing  by  her  influence  your 
affections  and  friendships,  what  will  you  become  when 
your  present  restraints  are  removed,  and  the  temptations 
of  the  world  assail  you  ?  Are  any  of  you  willing  to 
believe  or  say,  '  My  chief  ambition  shall  be  to  figure 
in  the  region  of  fashion  ;  the  amiable  qualities  of  the 
heart,  the  acquirements  of  intellect  and  the  integrity 
of  virtue  shall  have  no  charms  for  me  !  The  incense  of 
my  heart  shall  be  offered  at  the  shrine  of  wealth  and 
pleasure  ! '  Each  of  you  would^  now  feel  insulted  by 
having  such  sentiments  ascribed  to  you  ;  and  yet  there 
is  danger'  that  the  fascinations  of  the  world,  acting  upon 
a  cherished  love  of  admiration  and  pleasure,  may  hurry 
you  into  the  vortex  of  thoughtless  dissipation,  '  where  vir- 
tue is  forgot,  and  human  follies  reign.' 

We  wish  you  to  pay  such  attention  to  dress  and  man- 
ners as  may  suit  those  stations  in  life  to  which  you  may 
be  called ;  at  the  same  time  we  would  endeavor  to  con- 
vince you  that  these  are  but  the  accompaniments,  not  the 
chief  excellencies  of  a  lady.  The  whole  course  of  study 
recommended  by  the  regulations  of  the  institution  with  re- 
spect to  your  care  of  your  rooms,  occasional  attention  to 
domestic  operations  under  the  eye  of  the  superintendent, 
all  are  designed  to  make  you  domestic,  useful  and  good 
women.  We  would  not  that  you  should  be  like  the  but- 
terfly, who,  when  on  giddy  wing  she  has  sported  away 
the  short  summer  of  youth  and  beauty,  sinks  into  obliv- 
ion at  the  first  approach  of  winter  ;  but  like  the  ever- 
green, which  seems  brightest  and  most  beautiful  when 
the  frosts  prevail,  may  your  old  age  exhibit  the  loveli- 
ness of  virtue,  and  the  beauty  of  that  holiness  which  shall 
flourish  in  perennial  verdure  in  the  paradise  of  God. 


PUBLIC    SCHOOLS.  49 

LECTURE  V. 

Physical  Education. 

BEFORE  proceeding  to  consider  the  subjects  connected 
with  intellectual  improvement,  I  shall  make  some  remarks 
upon  the  development  of  the  senses,  or  those  external 
organs,  by  whose  means  the  soul  communicates  with  ma- 
terial objects.  Although  these  organs  are  the  gift  of  na- 
ture, it  is  by  practice  or  experience  that  they  become 
truly  useful  to  man. 

The  term  physical  education  is  used  in  reference 
to  the  improvements  which  can  be  effected  in  the 
human  frame  and  the  senses,  by  a  proper  system  of 
discipline.  Among  the  ancients,  physical  education 
occupied  a  large  share  of  attention  :  it  is  now  be- 
coming a  subject  of  inquiry  among  those  who  perceive 
the  evils  which  have  resulted  to  the  body  from  a  dispro- 
portioned  cultivation  of  the  intellectual  powers.  Mind 
is  ultimately  the  object  to  be  acted  upon,  in  physical  as 
in  other  branches  of  education.  That  department  of  the 
mind  to  which  we  are  now  to  give  our  attention,  is  called 
by  metaphysical  writers,  by  the  general  term,  external 
states  of  mind.  These  external  states  refer  to  the  mind, 
as  affected  by  external  objects,  as  affecting  the  body,  or 
as  being  affected  by  the  body :  they  are  also  known  by 
the  general  term  sensations.  With  sensation,  perception  is 
intimately  connected,  the  latter  being  the  knowledge  of 
the  material  world  which  the  former  communicates  ;-thus, 
you  put  your  hand  upon  the  stove,  and  you  have  the 
sensation  of  heat ;  by  this  you  perceive  that  the  stove  is 
hot.  The  term  consciousness  is  also  superadded  by  some 
metaphyscians ;— thus,  you  feel  the  heat ;  this  is  a  sensa- 
tion ;  you  perceive  the  stove  is  hot,  and  you  are  conscious 
or  know  that  you  do  thus  feel  and  perceive.  The  term 
consciousness  appears  superfluous,  for  we  cannot  feel  or 
perceive  without  knowing  that  we  do  so. 

Music,  drawing,  and  whatever  is  addressed  to  the  eye 
and  ear,  are  physical  operations,  inasmuch   as  they  re- 
quire the  agency  of  the  bodily  organs  in  their  execution, 
o 


50  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

or  affect  the  mind  through  the  agency  of  corporeal  or- 
gans :  but  the  judgment  which  decides  upon  the  merits 
of  these  performances,  snd  the  emotions  which  they  excite, 
together  constituting  the  complex  state  of  mind  called 
taste,  belong  to  the  department  of  intellectual,  rather  than 
physical  education. 

Physical  education  commences  almost  with  existence. 
The  new-born  infant  shows  itself  capable  of  sensations  ; 
if  a  pin  is  carelessly  placed  in  its  dress,  its  plaintive  cries 
at  once  denote  that  it  is  born  with  the  power  of  suffer- 
ing :  it  is  the  sense  of  touch  which  is  now  the  organ  of 
com  muni  cation.  This  same  sense  appears  almost  as 
early  to  afford  enjoyment :  the  infant,  while  gratifying 
another  sense,  that  of  taste,  in  imbibing  the  food 
which  nature  provides  for  its  sustenance,  seems  no 
less  delighted  in  clasping  with  instinctive  fondness 
the  soft,  kind  hand  which  sustains  its  feebleness.  If 
it  is  disquieted,  the  gentle  tones  of  its  mother  lull  it  to 
repose ;  when  it  awakes,  its  eye  unconsciously  wan- 
ders until  resting  upon  the  maternal  smile,  a  new  joy 
irradiates  its  countenance.  This  is  the  period  which 
seems  to  distinguish  the  human  being  from  the  young 
of  the  brute  species :  no  answering  smile  of  love 
is  ever  seen  among  them ;  and  although  in  the  acute- 
ness  and  perfection  of  their  senses  and  in  the  rapid  de- 
velopment of  their  physical  powers,  they  usually  surpass 
the  infant,  yet  here  the  little  immortal  manifests  the  ra- 
tional principle  which  is  to  endure  forever. 

It  is  with  the  -infant,  then,  that  physical  education  be- 
gins. Accustomed  to  constant  rocking,  or  to  being 
carried  about  in  the  arms,  it  forms  a  habit  which  re- 
quires indulgence.  If  it  is  early  dosed  with  laudanum, 
elixirs,  or  ardent  spirits,  that  it  may  be  quieted  or  put  to 
sleep,  a  habit  is  formed  ;  this  not  only  requires  indulgence 
during  infancy,  but  frequently  lays  the  foundation  for  in- 
temperance in  after  life.  If  the  infant's  head  is  suffered 
to  recline  usually  on  one  particular  side,  the  habit  is 
formed  of  keeping  the  head  in  that  position,  and  the  face 
itself  grows  awry.  A  child  may  be  fed  with  the  most 
disagreeable  nostrums,  until  a  fondness  is  acquired  for 
that  which  at  first  was  disgusting  to  the  taste. 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  51 

You  perceive  how  early  physical  habits  may  be  form- 
ed. Nor  are  mental  habits  less  early  or  less  strong 
in  their  growth  and  development ;  we  shall  at  present 
confine  ourselves  to  the  former.  We  have  already  ob- 
served that  the  term  physical,  as  applied  to  education, 
has  relation  to  the  body.  Not  that  the  body  itself, 
strictly  speaking,  can  form  any  habits ;  this  is  noth- 
ing more  than  a  collection  of  particles  of  matter,  which 
have  previously  existed  under  the  various  forms  of  animal 
or  vegetable  substances,  and  which  will  again  be  separa- 
ted to  appear  under  new  aspects,  forming  parts  of  organ- 
ic or  inorganic  bodies.  These  material  atoms  are  not 
subject  to  any  of  the  laws  which  govern  mind  ;  but  while 
united  to  the  mind  they  are  governed  by  it.  The  body 
is  an  instrument  which  the . mind  directs;  and  as  in 
this  state  of  existence  they  must  dwell  together,  it 
becomes  of  great  importance  that  they  should  mutually 
promote  the  welfare  of  each  other. 

The  mind  may  at  times  sigh  for  deliverance  from  its 
burthensome  companion  ;  it  may  be  conscious  that  but 
for  this,  it  could  range  through  the  infinity  of  space,  visit 
distant  worlds,  and  exist  in  an  atmosphere  untainted  by 
human  follies  :  yet  He,  who  made  man,  has  thought  proper 
to  consecrate  a  union  between  matter  and  mind,  so  that 
in  this  life  they  compose  but  one  individual. 

Through  the  agency  of  the  material  particles  to  which 
it  is  united,  the  mind  looks  out  of  itself,  and  by 
sensations  learns  the  properties  of  the  material  world. 
The  senses  are  all  dependent  on  material  organs,  though 
these  organs  are  no  more  the  subjects  of  sensation,  than 
is  an  eye-glass  of  vision,  or  an  ear-trumpet  of  hearing. 
The  eye  and  the  ear  are  themselves  but  as  inlets,  through 
which  colors  and  sounds  gain  access  to  the  mind. 

To  learn  then  the  best  methods  of  rendering  the  bod- 
ily organs  subservient  to  the  good  of  the  mind,  is  physi- 
cal education.  The  body  may  be  considered  either  as  a 
servant  which  the  Creator  of  the  mind  has  bestowed  up- 
on it,  or  as  a  travelling  companion  for  the  journey  of  life. 
As  we  would  strive  to  teach  a  servant  his  duty,  to  render 
him  familiar  with  the  offices  which  he  will  be  required  to 
perform,  so  should  the  body  be  trained  to  such  exercises 


52  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

and  duties,  to  such  privations  and  efforts  as  the  good  of 
the  mind  may  require.  Whether,  therefore,  we  regard 
the  body  as  an  instrument  to  he  wielded  by  the  mind,  an 
humble  companion,  or  a  servant,  the  importance  of  at- 
tention to  it,  as  closely  connected  with  ourselves  (for  it  is 
the  mind  which  constitutes  our  identity)  need  not  be 
urged. 

The  children  of  persons  in  the  lower  classes  of  so- 
ciety usually  jjve  wholly  for  the  body.  Play  and  labor, 
eating  and  sleeping  make  up  the  history  of  their  early 
days.  Or  if  they  go  to  school  and  learn  to  read  and 
write,  their  intellectual  exercises  are  of  so  low  a  nature, 
as  to  leave  the  balance  greatly  in  favor  of  the  body.  We 
sometimes  see,  even  under  such  unfavorable  circum- 
stances, the  workings  of  intellect,  as  if  struggling  to 
escape  from  the  rubbish  under  which  it  lies  ; — we  see 
spirits  endued  with  great  power  and  force,  burst  opposing 
barriers  and  urge  an  onward  course,  mounting  upwards 
like  the  eagle,  impatient  to  gaze  upon  the  fountains  of 
intellectual  light. 

It  is,  however,  rare  for  the  children  of  very  poor 
and  debased  parents  to  make  such  an  escape  from 
the  chains  in  which  mind  is  held  by  matter.  The  case 
of  those  who  rise  from  obscurity  and  become  intellectu- 
ally great,  does,  in  general,  differ  from  this.  Fortune 
often  depresses  parents  whose  aspiring  minds  never  sink 
or  become  debased  under  any  circumstances.  Many  a 
coarse  and  homely  hearth  sees  gather  around  its  evening 
fire,  those  who,  after  a  day  of  toil,  enjoy  *  the  feast  of 
reason,  and  the  flow  of  soul/ which  cannot  even  be  com- 
prehended by  many  of  the  triflers  who  walk  over  Eastern 
carpets,  and  proudly  recline  on  Grecian  couches. 

When  looking  at  the  sturdy  child  of  poverty,  whose 
ruddy  face  and  sinewy  form  denote  the  full  develop- 
ment of  bodily  powers,  but  whose  dull  and  vacant  eye, 
indicates  the  absence  of  thought,  we  feel,  that  the  hu- 
man being  has  not  risen  to  the  dignity  of  his  nature. 
Destitute  of  moral  elevation  and  intellectual  culture, 
man  is  but  little  superior  to  the  brute  creation  :  it  is  only 
when  all  his  faculties,  physical,  intellectual  and  moral  are 
seen  to  act  in  harmonious  concert,  that  he  appears  capa- 
ble of  enjoying  or  bestowing  happiness. 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  53 

A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  ('  mens  sana  in  corpore 
sano ')  was  an  ancient  motto,  denoting  the  most  perfect 
state  of  man  as  a  human  being  :  but  as  the  field. of  knowl- 
edge has  been  widening  by  new  discoveries,  the  intel- 
lectual part  of  mankind  have  fallen  into  the  error  of 
neglecting  bodily  health  in  their  zeal  for  mental  improve- 
ment. As  respects  our  own  sex,  both  fashion,  and  in- 
creased attention  to  the  mind,  have  been  alike  injurious 
in  producing  habits  tending  to  physical  derangement 
and  debility* 

We  have  remarked  upon  the  early  formation  of  physi- 
cal habits,  commencing  even  in  infancy.  The  senses 
then  learn  their  duties ;  the  touch  corrects  the  errors  of 
sight,  and  all  reciprocally  aid  each  other  in  informing 
the  mind  of  the  properties  of  matter. 

The  sensations  are  an  important  class  of  our  mental 
faculties  ;  for  you  must  remember,  that  hearing  and  see- 
ing are  no  less  states  of  the  mind,  than  judging  or  loving. 
Education  is  employed  upon  mind  alone.  When  the 
mother  would  teach  her  child  to  walk,  she  influences  its 
mind  to  will  the  use  of  its  limbs.  She  holds  out  an 
orange,  and  thus  by  exciting  the  desire  of  possessing  it, 
she  tempts  the  child  to  move.  The  will,  obeying  the  im- 
pulse of  desire  and  having  power  over  the  bodily  organs, 
raises  the  feet,  and  impels  the  body  towards  the  wished 
for  object. 

The  senses  need  no  foreign  aid  to  bring  them  into  use; 
yet  even  with  them,  habit  has  great  influence,  as  may  be 
seen  in  those  whose  business  leads  them  to  the  exercise 
of  one  sense  more  than  another.  The  feelings  of  taste 
early  mingle  with  our  sensations  :  all  children  love  mu- 
sic, and  their  future  taste  in  this  science  depends  much 
on  their  early  associations.  Pictures  delight  children, 
and  according  as  those  which  are  presented  to  them  are 
well  or  ill  executed,  their  taste  with  respect  to  them  will 
probably  be  of  a  delicate  or  coarse  nature. 

All  the  motions  of  the  body  are  subject  to  the  influ- 
ence of  habit.     Stooping  while  walking  and  sitting  may 
become   a  habit,   and  it  is  equally  easy  to  make  an  up- 
right posture  become  such.     Walking  with  the  toes  turn- 
5* 


54  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

ed  in,  is  a  common  habit,  whereas  the  more  graceful  mode 
of  turning  them  out,  and  thereby  enlarging  the  base  of 
support  and  rendering  motion  or  rest  easier,  might  with 
equal  facility  be  acquired. 

It  is  however  too  late  to  warn  most  of  you  of  the  im- 
portance of  childhood  with  respect  to  physical  habits ; 
you  have  all  contracted  those  of  some  kind  or  other,  ei- 
ther good  or  bad.  But  it  should  excite  our  gratitude  to 
the  former  of  our  bodies  and  the  author  of  our  minds, 
that  strong  as  the  power  of  habit  may  be,  the  mind  still 
possesses  a  controlling  power  to  alter  and  to  correct  what 
we  see  amiss  either  in  our  physical,  intellectual  or 
moral  habits. 

In  common  with  many  others  who  have  taken  a 
share  in  the  education  of  the  young,  we  feel  that  phys- 
ical education  has  been  too  much  neglected.  In  the 
mental  efforts  which  the  teachers,  as  well  as  pupils  of  this 
institution  have  been  obliged  to  make,  in  order  to  attain 
the  desired  standard  of  intellectual  improvement,  much 
has  been  suffered,  through  a  neglect  of  exercise. 

When  the  mind  is  deeply  interested  in  literary 
and  scientific  pursuits,  it  is  prone  to  forget  the  body ; 
this,  by  being  suffered  to  remain  long  inactive,  becomes 
reluctant  to  move,  and  visits  back  such  neglect,  by 
headaches,  languors,  sleeplessness,  indigestion,  and  a 
thousand  other  ills  tending  to  paralyze  the  mental 
energies.  Aware  as  we  all  are  of  this  danger,  connected 
with  the  pursuits  of  knowledge,  it  is  to  be  hoped  we  may 
profit  by  past  experience,  and  retrieve  as  far  as  possible, 
by  a  systematic  course  of  exercise,  the  health  which  has 
been  sacrificed. 

Calisthenics,*  or  female  gymnastics,  is  very  pro- 
perly becoming  a  branch  of  education.  I  have,  how- 
ever, seen  with  regret,  that  many  of  you  appear  to  en- 
gage in  these  exercises  with  reluctance,  as  if  every 
moment  taken  from  your  studies  were  time  lost.  With 
the  view  already  given  of  the  intimate  connection 

*  From  two  Greek  words  signifying  grace  and  strength.  A 
small  work  on  Calisthenics,  recently  published  by  Messrs.  Hunt- 
ington,  Hartford,  would  be  found  useful  in  female  seminaries. 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  55 

between  the  mind  and  body,  you  must  be  convinced 
that  the  latter  cannot  with  impunity  be  neglected.  And 
yet  even  our  pleasant  morning  walks  seem  by  some  to 
be  counted  an  unnecessary  and  tedious  task,  and  youth- 
ful limbs  are  sometimes  seen  dragged  heavily  along, 
as  if  already  touched  by  age  and  infirmity.  An  early 
walk  in  a  fine  summer  morning  to  our  classic  Mount 
Ida,*  will  not  only  afford  a  needful  physical  exercise, 
but  presenting  you  with  a  lovely  picture  of  the  com- 
bined beauties  of  nature  and  art,  tend  to  raise  in  your 
minds  cheerful  images,  and  to  lead  your  thoughts  to 
the  Author  of  all  good. 

Those  of  you  who  have  become  interested  in  the 
different  branches  of  natural  science,  particularly  Bot- 
any and  Geology,  have  found  a  new  interest  in  the 
works  of  nature,  and  new  motives  now  lead  you  to 
ramble  over  its  wild  and  sequestered  scenes. 

As  a  branch  of  physical  education,  dancing  is  recom- 
mended by  physicians ;  when  practised  merely  as  a  school 
exercise,  it  seems  not  liable  to  the  objections  which  ma- 
ny urge  against  promiscuous  dancing  assemblies. 

Connected  with  physical  education  are  music,  draw- 
ing and  writing,  and  indeed  every  pursuit  depending 
upon  bodily  action :  these  will  be  considered  under  the 
head  of  accomplishments. 

Riding  on  horseback  is  a  very  healthful  as  well  as 
graceful  exercise ;  yet  it  is  somewhat  questionable 
whether  there  is  not  too  much  the  appearance  of  dis- 
play in  a  young  lady's  prancing  through  the  most  public 
streets  of  a  large  city.  A  rural  excursion  on  horseback 
is  more  safe  and  proper. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  of  physical  education, 
I  would  remark,  that,  influenced  by  the  suggestions  of  the 
Principal  in  her  late  letters  from  Paris,  and  by  my  own 
anxiety  that  you  may  have  greater  facilities  for  exercise 
in  the  open  air,  I  have  petitioned  and  obtained  from  the 
Corporation  of  Troy  a  considerable  addition  to  the  semi- 

*  A  hill  on  the  east  which  overlooks  the  modern  Troy  :  here, 
instead  of  the  din  of  arms  or  the  stratagems  of  war,  is  presented 
the  picture  of  a  youncr  and  flourishing  city,  where  commerce  and 
the  arts,  literature  and  science,  all  find  a  genial  atmosphere. 


60  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

nary  grounds.  This  acquisition  will  afford  us  the  means 
of  cultivating  flowers,  so  that  we  may  expect  soon  to 
see  Flora  take  her  station  with  the  muses. 

The  cultivation  of  flowers,  and  indeed  everything 
connected  with  gardening,  has  a  most  happy  influence 
upon  the  disposition  as  well  as  the  health.  I  scarcely 
know  of  an  instance  of  a  lady  being  at  the  same  time 
ill-tempered  and  fond  of  cultivating  flowers.  I  have 
known  those  to  whom  sorrow  had  become  familiar  find 
in  flowers  a  solace  for  a  wounded  heart.  To  the 
cheerful  they  suggest  images  of  hope  and  happi- 
ness, and  to  the  disturbed  mind  they  seem  to  have 
a  power  of  imparting  serenity.  It  is  not  after  having 
walked  among  those  eloquent  witnesses  of  the  power 
and  benevolence  of  God,  and  inhaled  the  morning 
air  from  their  dewy  petals,  that  a  woman  would  be 
likely  to  be  heard  using  ungentle  expressions  towards 
her  husband,  her  children,  or  domestics.  It  is  when 
foiled  in  ambition  to  outshine  others  in  the  circles  of 
fashion,  when  languid  from  dissipation,  or  disgusted 
with  a  round  of  empty  amusements,  that  a  peevish  and 
irritable  temper  may  be  expected. 

Beauty  is  essentially  connected  with  health  :  exercise, 
neatness  and  temperance  are  essential  to  both.  It  is 
much  to  be  lamented  that  young  girls  are  so  frequently 
imprudent,  with  respect  to  the  care  of  health.  I  have 
spoken  of  exercise,  but  something  more  is  necessary — it 
should  be  taken  at  proper  hours,  and  in  a  suitable  dress. 
An  early  morning's  walk  in  a  pair  of  thin  prunellas 
will  be  more  injurious  than  even  the  want  of  exercise. 
Unless  the  feet  are  warm  and  dry  the  body  cannot  be  in 
a  state  of  health  and  comfort.  The  good  old  custom 
of  former  times,  with  respect  to  the  knitting  and  wearing 
woollen  has  given  place  to  idleness,  and  cotton  and  silk 
hose.  These  materials  are  too  light  for  our  north- 
ern winters.  A  young  lady  who,  induced  by  the  vanity 
of  displaying  a  delicate  foot,  appears  abroad  in  cold  or 
damp  weather  with  a  stocking  and  shoe  fit  only  for 
walking  over  a  drawing  room  carpet,  may  succeed  in 
attracting  admiration ;  but  she  will  not  fail  of  receiving 
severe  censure  for  her  imprudence.  What  man  of  sense 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  57 

would  wish  to  marry  a  female  who  had  no  prudence 
with  regard  to  her  health  ?  Would  the  fortune  or  honor 
of  her  husband  be  likely  to  be  more  dear  to  her  than  her 
own  health  and  life  ?  I  am  sensible  that  imprudence  of 
this  kind  is  often  the  result  of  thoughtlessness  rather  than 
vanity ;  young  persons  are  not  sufficiently  aware  of  the 
danger  of  such  exposures,  and,  having  experienced  little 
sickness,  they  forget  the  frailty  of  their  natures,  and 
what  slight  causes  may  give  rise  to  fatal  diseases.  But 
having  been  warned  by  their  friends,  and  their  own  sad 
experience,  they  are  inexcusable  if  they  continue  the 
practice  of  carelessness  involving  consequences  so 
serious. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  care  of  health  are 
the  modes  of  carrying  the  body  in  writing,  sitting  at 
the  piano,  walking,  &,c.  I  shall  here  offer  the  re- 
marks of  a  physician,*  respecting  the  structure  of  that 
part  of  the  human  form  which  becomes  bent  and  dis- 
torted by  the  contraction  of  certain  injurious  and  had 
habits. 

1  The  weight  of  the  principal  part  of  the  body  or  trunk, 
the  weight  of  the  neck,  the  head  and  the  two  upper 
extremities,  are  supported  by  a  single  bony  column,  call- 
ed the  spine.  This  column  is  about  three  inches  in 
diameter.  It  consists  of  twenty-four  pieces  of  bone 
placed  one  on  the  other;  and  between  each  two  is 
interposed  a  substance,  somewhat  resembling  caout- 
chouc, or  India-rubber,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it 
elasticity.  This  column  is  hollow,  and  contains  the 
spinal  marrow.  Now  the  spinal  marrow  is  the  origin  and 
source  of  the  nerves,  that  convey  the  influence  necessa- 
ry to  voluntary  motion ;  and  they  are  sent  off  in  pairs 
to  the  various  muscles.  The  bony  pieces  of  the  spine 
are  confined  together  by  many  small  ligaments,  by  the 
elastic  substance  just  spoken  of,  and  by  numerous 
muscles,  affixed,  not  only  to  connect  and  support,  but 
also  to  move  them. 

'  The  bones  of  the  spine,  at  an  early  period  of  life,  are 

*  See  Dr.  Warren's  lecture  on  Physical  Education  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Instruction. 


58  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

themselves  in  part  composed  of  an  elastic,  cartilaginous 
or  gristly  substance ;  and  are  always  of  a  porous  and 
sponge  like  texture.  In  consequence  of  this  kind  of 
organization,  the  spinal  column  possesses  much  elastici- 
ty arid  flexibility,  which  enable  it  to  yield  and  to  move 
in  different  directions,  and  expose  it  to  receive  perma- 
nent flexures,  when  there  is  a  deficiency  of  natural 
strength  in  its  composing  parts. 

'  Causes  which  affect  the  health,  and  produce  general 
weakness,  operate  powerfully  on  this  part,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  complexity  of  its  structure,  and  the  great 
burden  it  supports.  When  weakened,  it  gradually  yields 
under  its  weight,  becomes  bent  and  distorted,  losing  its 
natural  curves,  and  acquiring  others,  in  such  directions 
as  the  operation  of  external  causes  tend  to  give  to  it  ; 
and  these  curves  will  be  proportioned,  in  their  perma- 
nence, to  the  producing  causes.  If  the  supporting  part 
is'  removed  from  its  true  position,  the  parts  supported 
necessarily  follow,  and  thus  a  distortion  of  the  spine 
effects  a  distortion  of  the  trunk  of  the  body. 

'  The  change  commonly  begins  at  the  part  which 
supports  the  right  arm.  The  column  bends  towards  the 
right  shoulder,  forms  a  convexity  on  the  side  where 
the  shoulder  rests,  and  thus  elevates  the  right  higher 
than  the  other.  This  elevation,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  growing  out  of  the  shoulder,  is  the  first  phenom- 
enon that  strikes  the  friends  of  the  patient.  Often  when 
observed,  it  has  already  undergone  a  considerable 
change  of  position,  and  the  change  is  not  confined  to 
the  shoulder,  nor  to  the  portion  of  spine  immediately 
connected  with  it.  On  examination,  it  will  be  discover- 
ed that  the  curvature  to  the  right  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
column,  is  accompanied,  as  a  natural  consequence,  by  a 
bend  of  the  lower  part  of  the  left,  and  a  corresponding 
projection  of  the  left  hip.  It  is  perfectly  obvious,  that 
the  inclination  of  the  upper  part  of  a  flexible  stick  to 
one  side,  will  leave  the  lower  part  on  the  others ;  and 
when,  by  this  inclination,  the  vertical  support  is  lost,  a 
disposition  to  yield  at  the  curving  points  will  continually 
increase,  until  it  be  counteracted  by  some  other  power. 
Thus  it  happens,  then,  that  any  considerable  projection 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  59 

of  the  right  shoulder  will  be  attended  by  a  correspond- 
ing projection  of  the  left  hip. 

1  The  rising  of  the  shoulder  involves  other  changes  in 
the  osseous*  fabric.  For  as  the  spinal  bones  support  the 
ribs,  when  these  bones  project  they  necessarily  push 
forward  the  ribs  dependent  on  them.  These  ribs  form 
the  frame  of  the  chest,  and  of  course  the  right  side  of 
the  chest  is  projected  forwards,  and  causes  a  deformity 
in  the  fore  part  of  the  body.  Nor  do  the  changes  stop 
here.  The  posterior  ends  of  the  ribs  being  pushed 
forwards,  and  the  anterior  ends  being  confined  to  the 
sternum,  or  breast  bone,  the  right  edge  of  the  sternum 
will  be  drawn  forwards,  and  the  left  edge  consequently 
turned  backwards.  The  fore  parts  of  the  left  ribs  will 
be  gradually  forced  inwards  or  backwards,  and  thus  the 
left  side  of  the  chest  distorted  and  contracted.  I  feel 
warranted  in  the  assertion,  that  of  the  well  educated 
females  within'  my  sphere  of  experience,  about  one  half 
are  affected  with  some  degree  of  distortion  of  the 
spine. ; 

The  physician  from  whom  I  have  borrowed  this  simple 
and  unaffected  description  of  a  part  of  the  human  anato- 
my, proceeds  to  consider  the  causes  of  the  distortion  and 
derangement  of  its  various  parts.  He  notices  the  want 
of  exercise,  and  the  taking  of  food,  improper  in  quantity 
or  quality.  On  the  latter  head  I  should  have  spoken,  but 
want  of  time  obliges  me  to  omit  this,  as  well  as  many 
other  subjects  of  important  interest,  connected  with 
physical  education. 

'  The  habit  of  bending  the  neck,  while  writing  or 
drawing,  gradually  compresses  the  vertebrae,  and  the 
intervertebral  substance  on  their  anterior  part,  and 
causes  a  permanent  change  in  the  form  of  this  part  of 
the  spinal  column.  This  distortion  is  so  very  common 
among  us,  that  we  are  apt  to  consider  it  a  natural 
formation.  In  fact,  however,  it  is  entirely  artificial  in  a 
great  number  of  instances.  Sometimes  it  is  the  conse- 
quence of  negligence,  and  not  unfrequently  of  timidity. 
Whether  it  tends  to  impair  the  health,  always,  I  will  not 

*  Bony,  from  os,  a  bone. 


60  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

say ;  that  it  sometimes  does,  I  am  certain,  and  its  effect 
in  deforming  the  shape  is  even  greater  than  a  moderate 
degree  of  lateral  curve. 

'The  immediate  cause  of  the  lateral  curve  of  the  spine 
to  the  right,  opposite  to  the  right  shoulder,  is  the  eleva- 
tion and  action  of  the  right  arm  in  drawing  and  writing. 
This  posture  pulls  the  part  of  the  spinal  column  to 
which  the  muscles  of  the  right  arm  are  fixed,  to  the  right 
side.  The  convexity  of  the  spine  thus  produced,  keeps 
the  right  shoulder  elevated,  and  the  left  consequently 
depressed.  The  lower  part  of  the  column  is  thrown  to 
the  left  side,  and  this  displacement  being  favored  by  the 
disposition  to  rest  pn  the  left  foot  while  standing  to 
speak  or  read,  there  comes  to  be  a  permanent  projection 
of  the  left  hip.  The  postures  employed  in  practising  on 
musical  instruments  sometimes  bring  on  these  disorders  ; 
as,  for  example,  a  great  use  of  the  harp  favors  the  dispo- 
sition to  lateral  curvature,  from  the  constant  extension  of 
the  right  arm.7* 

The  mode  of  sitting  at  the  piano  ought  to  be  carefully 
regarded ;  if  you  comprehend  the  explanations  with 
respect  to  the  construction  of  the  spine,  or  back  bone,  you 
will  perceive  how  important  it  is  that  it  should  be  held 
erect,  and  that  by  indulging  yourselves  in  a  crooked 
posture,  the  figure  will  at  length  grow  distorted.  You 
know  that  if  you  should  keep  a  straight  young  twig  con- 
fined in  a  bent  position  for  a  length  of  time,  it  would 
become  a  crooked  tree.  We  should  think  it  a  strange 
taste  in  a  gardener  who  should  thus  wish  to  pervert  the 
beautiful  and  perfect  works  of  God.  A  crooked  tree 
might  indeed  bear  good  fruit,  and  if  any  of  you  are  by 
nature  distorted  in  body,  you  must  endeavor  to  supply 
the  deflect  by  richness  of  mental  culture. 

In  France,  great  pains  are  taken  with  children  to  give 
them  the  habit  of  holding  back  the  shoulders  and 
expanding  the  chest*  and  it  is  said  that  the  collar  bone 
is  longer  in  French  women  than  in  others.  The  posture 
in  bed  should  not  be  habitually  such  as  to  cause  a 
crooked  position  of  the  spine.  High  pillows  are  inju- 

*  Dr.  Warren.          » 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  61 

rious,  as  they  produce  the  same  effect  upon  the  form  as 
stooping. 

With  respect  to  walking,  the  carriage  of  the  body 
must  depend  greatly  on  the  perfect  state  of  the  spine ; 
the  custom  of  holding  the  head  up,,  the  shoulders  back 
and  throwing  the  chest  forward.  Ybu  may  all  do  much 
to  improve  yourselves  in  these  respects  by  walking  in 
your  rooms  with  a  book  upon  your  head.  In  order  to 
balance  the  book  you  must  necessarily  hold  your  per- 
sons erect,  and  instead  of  looking  down,  as  young  ladies 
are  very  apt  to  do,  direct  your  eyes  horizontally.  l  How 
different,'  says  the  physician  already  quoted,  '  are  the 
impressions  made  on  us  by  a  man  whose  attitude  is 
erect  and  commanding,  and  by  one  who  walks  with  his 
face  directed  to  the  earth,  as  if  fearful  of  encountering 
the  glances  of  those  he  meets  1  Such  attentions  are 
even  of  greater  importance  to  the  fair  sex,  where  we 
naturally  look  for  attraction  in  some  form  or  shape.  If 
nature  has  not  given  beauty  to  all,  she  has  given  the 
power  of  acquiring  a  graceful  movement  and  an  upright 
form,  qualities  more  valuable  and  more  durable  than  the 
other/ 

One  more  subject  connected  with  physical  educa- 
tion is  the  habit  of  tight  lacing.  In  enabling  you  to 
comprehend  the  manner  in  which  this  practice  becomes 
injurious  to  health  and  destruction  of  life,  we  again  refer 
to  Dr.  Warren's  lecture. 

f  Nature  has  so  contrived  the  human  chest,  that  there  is 
no  superfluous  play  of  the  parts  composing  it.  Its 
movements  are  just  sufficient  to  give  such  an  expansion 
to  the  lungs  and  such  an  extent  of  oxygenation  of  the 
blood,  as  are  adequate  to  the  wants  of  the  individual 
under  different  occurrences.  In  females  the  chest  is 
shorter  than  in  males;  and  to  compensate  for  this,  the 
motion  of  the  ribs  is  more  extensive,  and  more  frequent. 
Whatever  limits  this  motion,  is  peculiarly  injurious  to 
the  sex,  especially  as  they  are  more  disposed  to  con- 
sumption and  other  chronic  affections  of  the  lungs. 
Now  the  ligatures  in  the  fashionable  dress  are  placed 
precisely  on  that  part,  where  the  motion  should  be  the 
greatest ;  that  is,  the  lower  part.  It  is  precisely  here, 
6 


§£  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

that  in  case  of  fracture  of  the  ribs  when  we  desired  to 
stop  the  movements  of  the  chest,  we  apply  a  tight  band- 
age, though  rarely  do  we  venture  to  make  it  so  tight  as 
the  ordinary  corsets.  The  effect  of  such  pressure, 
begun  at  an  early  period  of  life,  will  be  understood  from 
what  has  been  stated  in  regard  to  the  spine.  The 
bones  must  yield  to  it ;  their  shape  becomes  permanent- 
ly altered ;  the  lower  part  of  the  breast  contracted, 
the  space  destined  by  nature  for  the  heart  and  lungs 
diminished,  and  what  the  fatal  results  of  all  this  on 
these  tender  and  vital  organs  are,  every  day's  experience 
shows  us.  The  influence  on  the  health,  though  slow,  is 
certain.  It  may  not  at  once  produce  consumption ;  but 
it  lays  the  foundation  fo-r  ills  it  would  pain  you  to  hear  and 
me  to  describe.  I  will  only  say,  by  way  of  specification, 
that  among  other  diseases,  of  which  this  is  the  fruitful 
germ,  I  have  known  three  instances  of  perpetual  headache, 
at  last  bringing  on  insanity,  and  terminating  in  death. 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  disease  was  the  compres- 
sion of  the  heart  and  great  blood  vessels,  and  the  con- 
sequent accumulation  of  blood  in  the  head.' 

You  cannot  fail  to  comprehend  this  simple  explanation 
of  that  part  of  your  own  frames  which  you  too  frequently 
expose  to  derangements,  from  the  foolish  ambition  of 
appearing  slender  and  sylph-like.  But  although  the 
circumference  of  the  waist  may  be  diminished,  the 
appearance  of  the  whole  person  so  far  from  being 
improved,  is  much  injured  by  tight  lacing.  A  rush  of 
blood  to  the  head  gives  the  face  a  purple  and  unnatural 
flush ;  the  muscles  which  give  play  to  the  arms  and 
shoulders  being  confined,  the  motions  appear  stiff  and 
ungraceful,  the  breathing  is  obstructed,  and  the  whole 
body  rendered  uncomfortable.  In  such  a  situation 
who  can  converse  with  ease  and  confidence,  and  delight 
the  social  circle  by  a  fine  flow  of  thoughts,  and  beautiful 
mode  of  expression  ?  The  mind,  partaking  in  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  body,  becomes  tof*pid,  and  instead  of  giving 
and  receiving  enjoyment,  in  the  hours  devoted  ta 
society,  torture  on  the  part  of  the  victim  and  pity  for  her 
manifest  sufferings  are  experienced. 

Corsets,  when  properly  worn,  are  far  from  meriting  the 
general  condemnation  which  they  have  received.  They 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION.  U3 

may  be  so  made  as  to  prove  a  support  to  the  body  in- 
stead of  an  injury.  A  busk  not  too  wide  or  too  rigid 
seems  to  correspond  to  the  supporting  spine,  and  assist 
rather  than  impede  the  efforts  of  nature  to  keep  the 
body  erect. 

A  degree  of  tightness,  not  uncomfortable  or  impeding 
any  of  the  functions  of  respiration,  is  probably  conducive 
to  health.  It  prevents  that  weakness  of  the  stomach  of 
which  many  females,  especially  those  who  do  not  wear 
corsets,  frequently  complain.  A  moderate  compression 
of  the  chest  is  thought  also  by  physicians  to  check  a 
tendency  to  dropsy.  Indeed  it  is  with  corsets,  as  many 
other  things,  that  it  is  the  abuse  rather  than  the  use  of 
them  which  is  to  be  condemned. 

In  concluding  my  remarks  on  physical  education,  I 
would  recommend  to  you  a  practice  suggested  by  a 
French  writer,*  viz.  that  of  keeping  a  kind  of  physical 
journal,  or  a  record  of  you*  observations  upon  your  own 
peculiar  constitutions.  In  order  to  make  these  obser- 
vations, it  will  be  necessary  to  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  degree  and  kinds  of  exercise  most  condu- 
cive to  your  health,  the  quantity  and  kinds  of  food 
most  salutary,  as  well  as  the  best  seasons  for  tak- 
ing particular  kinds  of  food.  Thus  some  persons  find 
that  breakfasting  upon  meat  makes  them  dull  and  heavy, 
while  the  constitutions  of  others  requires  more  of  solid 
food.  Late  suppers  are  probably  found  by  all  to  be 
injurious.  By  attention  to  physical  changes,  and  an 
observation  of  those  simple  remedies  which  are  found 
efficacious  in  relieving  slight  complaints,  females  may 
learn  tcupreserve  and  regulate  their  own  healths  without 
the  aid  of  a  physician,  except  in  cases  of  sudden  and 
acute  diseases.  A  knowledge  of  Chemistry  and  Botany 
will  prove  of  great  use  to  you,  with  respect  to  an 
acquaintance  with  medicine.  Every  woman  ought  to 
understand  the  elements  and  composition  of  the  reme- 
dies prescribed  for  her,  or  by  her  administered  to 
others.  Without  a  knowledge  of  Chemistry  she  cannot 
&e  made  to  comprehend  this,  but  with  it,  she  holds  & 

"  *  M.  JuJlien. 

((  UNIVERSITY 


64  PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

key  that  will  unlock  the  mysteries  with  which  ignorant 
physicians  have  sought  to  envelope  the  healing  art. 

If  you  ask  a  physician  the  component  parts  of  a 
medicine  which  he  orders,  and  he  is  unable  to  answer, 
you  have  reason  to  doubt  his  qualifications  for  his 
profession.  Scientific  practioners  do  not  fail  to  investi- 
gate the  chemical  elements  of  the  substances  they  use, 
and  it  is  by  a  knowledge  of  these  elements,  and  of  their 
modes  of  combination,  aided  by  experience,  that  they  can 
calculate  on  the  effects  to  be  produced.  A  knowledge 
of  Botany  will  enable  you  to  ascertain  with  certainty  the 
identity  of  plants  which  are  important  as  medicinal 
agents :  the  common  names  of  plants,  being  traditional 
and  local,  it  is  impossible  to  decide  on  them  with 
certainty ;  but  Botany  will  furnish  you  with  a  sure  and 
unerring  guide  to  their  true  name,  as  recognized  by 
physicians. 

In  the  department  of  your  journal  devoted  to  physical 
changes,  it  would  be  well  to  keep  a  record  of  medicines 
whose  effects  you  had  witnessed  on  yourselves  or  others, 
with  their  composition  and  nature  ;  if  vegetable  remedies, 
give  their  botanical  names  and  characters.  Females 
Save  much  need  of  some  medical  knowledge,  both  with 
reference  to  their  individual  maladies  and  the  diseases 
of  those  around  them:  and  although  accustomed,  as 
most  of  you  have  been,  to  be  watched  over  and  adminis- 
tered unto,  you  can  now  have  little  conception  of  the 
changes  which  will  take  place ;  yet  the  time  may  soon  ar- 
rive when  it  will  become  your  turn  to  watch  over,  and 
minister  to  others. 

According  to  the  arrangement  which  we  have  made  of 
the  departments  of  education,  we  shall  next  proceed  to 
consider  intellectual  improvement. 

This  will  demand  much  attention,  as  it  involves  the 
subject  of  mental  discipline,  and  the  consideration  of  the 
various  branches  of  study  in  which  you  are  now  engag- 
ed. Even  the  study  of  moral  philosophy,  considered  as  a 
science,  properly  comes  under  the  head  of  intellectual 
improvement,  though  as  an  art,  or  in  its  practical  appli- 
cation, it  properly  belongs  to  the  ethical  or  moral  depart- 
ment 


DIVISION   OF   MENTAL   FACULTIES.  65 

Our  attention  will  now  be  devoted  to  the  consideration 
of  those  means  by  which  the  slumbering  energies  of 
mind  may  be  aroused,  and  those  energies  strengthened 
and  developed. 

In  remarking  upon  the  different  branches  of  study,  it 
will  be  my  object,  1st,  to  give  general  views  of  the  his- 
tory and  progress  of  each  science;  2d,  its  prominent  prin- 
ciples and  its  relations  to  other  sciences  ;  3d,  its  objects 
and  practical  applications.  I  may  depart  from  this 
method  in  some  cases,  as  where  it  seems  most  proper  to 
consider  first  the  principles  of  a  science,  or  where  it  ap- 
pears unnecessary  to  treat  of  the  history  of  a  science 
distinctly  from  its  outlines. 


LECTURE  VI. 

Division  of  Mental  Faculties. — Mental  Discipline. — 
Cultivation  of  Mental  faculties. 

THE  mind  is  the  object  on  which  education  operates. 
Even  those  habits  which  seem  to  depend  wholly  upon  the 
body,  we  see  have  their  origin  in  the  mind,  without  whose 
vivifying  influence  the  human  machine  would  be  as  in- 
active as  the  marble  statue,  or  the  body  from  whence  the 
soul  has  departed.  Physical  education  has  relation  to 
the  mind,  as  governing  the  body,  and  capable  of  making 
it  the  willing  and  ready  instrument  of  a  variety  of  sensa- 
tions and  muscular  movements.  Physical  education  also 
includes  that  care  of  the  body  which  is  due  to  it  as  the 
tenement  of  the  soul,  and  on  whose  sound  condition  the 
welfare  of  the  latter  so  much  depends. 

Before  proceeding  with  our  remarks  on  intellectual  im- 
provement, it  may  be  proper  to  give  the  outlines  of  a 
classification  of  the  states  of  mind  which  has  of  late  been 
received  with  great  approbation  both  in  Europe  and  Ame- 

6* 


66  DIVISION    OP    MENTAL    FACULTIES. 

rica  ;  I  mean  that  of  Dr.  Brown,  to  which  allusion  has  al- 
ready been  made.  According  to  this,  all  our  mental 
phenomena  may  be  referred  to  three  great  classes,  first, 
External  states  of  mind;  these  include  all  our  sensations, 
as  derived  from  smell,  taste,  touch  and  sight,  and  also  all 
the  feelings  which  arise  from  the  action  of  the  muscles ; 
or  which  are  raised  in  the  mind  from  external  objects,  or 
from  changes  of  the  body,  which  is  external  with  respect 
to  the  mind.  Second,  Intellectual  states  of  mind ;  these 
include  what  some  writers  have  called  the  reasoning  pow- 
ers, the  powers  of  the  understanding,  intellectual  powers, 
&>c.  Third,  Emotions  ;  these  include  what  have  been 
termed  active  powers ;  but  Dr.  Brown  very  properly  as- 
serts, that  the  mind  when  in  that  state  called  hope,  or  joy, 
is  no  more  active  than  when  engaged  in  reasoning,  or  im- 
agining;  a  classification  must,  therefore,  be  defective 
which  makes  a  property  common  to  both  classes  the 
foundation  of  a  distinction. 

The  intellectual  states  of  mind  and  the  emotions  uni- 
tedly form  a  more  general  division,  called  internal  states, 
incontra-distinction  to  external.  These  internal  states  are 
such  as  the  mind  could  experience,  were  it  separated  from 
the  body.  If  we  could  imagine  a  living  human  being 
with  the  entire  loss  of  all  his  bodily  senses,*  although  he 
would  be  cut  off  from  all  external  objects,  yet  we  can 
conceive  that  he  might  remember  the  past,  he  might  grieve 
for  his  melancholy  fate,  and  might  hope  for  death  to 
set  his  spirit  free  from  its  living  and  breathing  tomb.  It 
is  this  capacity  of  the  mind  to  '  enter  into  its  own  sanctu- 
ary and  to  commune  with  itself/  which,  as  Dr.  Brown  re- 
marks, renders  it  '  truly  immortal'  and  independent  of  the 
perishable  atoms  to  which  it  is  now  united. 

Fearing  that  I  may  not  have  done  justice  to  Dr.  Brown's 

*  This  supposition  is  not  as  absurd  as  may  at  first  be  imagined. 
Aged  persons  sometimes  gradually  lose  their  sight,  hearing,  taste, 
and  smell ;  and  yet  they  are  no  less  living  beings  than  before  the 
loss  of  their  senses.  We  cannot  suppose  that  the  only  remaining 
sense,  that  of  touch,  is  the  link  between  life  and  death.  Instan- 
ces too  have  occurred,  in  which  persons  have  been  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  general  paralysis ;  that  is,  they  have  been  wholly 
incapable  of  muscular  motion,  and  almost  insensible  to  touch,  and 
this  without  being  rendered  incapable  of  thinking  or  reasoning. 


DIVISION    OF    MENTAL    FACULTIES.  67 

Classification,  I  will  repeat  it  in  his  own  words.  '  We 
have  sensations,  or  perceptions  of  objects  that  affect  our 
bodily  organs  ;  these,  I  term  the  sensitive  or  external  af- 
fections of  the  mind ;  we  remember  objects,  we  imagine 
them  in  new  situations,  we  compare  their  relations  ;  these 
mere  conceptions,  or  notions  of  objects  and  their  quali- 
ties, as  elements  of  our  general  knowledge,  are  what  I 
have  termed  the  intellectual  states  of  mind;  we  are  mov- 
ed with  certain  lively  feelings,  on  the  consideration  of 
what  we  thus  perceive,  remember,  imagine,  or  compare, 
with  feelings  for  example,  of  beauty  or  sublimity  or  as- 
tonishment, or  love,  or  hatred,  or  hope,  or  fear ;  these  and 
various  other  vivid  feelings  analagous  to  them,  are  our 
emotions.  There  is  no  portion  of  our  consciousness 
which  does  not  appear  to  me  to  be  included  in  one  or 
other  of  these  three  divisions.  To  know  all  our  sensi- 
tive states,  all  our  intellectual  states,  and  all  our  emo- 
tions, is  to  know  all  the  states  or  phenomena  of  the  mind.5 

In  treating  upon  physical  education,  we  have  consid- 
ered the  mind  in  relation  to  its  external  affections.  We 
shall  now  proceed  to  consider  our  second  division  of  the 
departments  of  education — intellectual  improvement; 
this  will  comprehend  Dr.  Brown's  second  division,  or  the 
intellectual  powers. 

In  entering  upon  the  subject  of  intellectual  improve- 
ment, a  vast  field  opens  before  us ;  it  will  be  impossible 
to  do  more  than  to  take  a  rapid  and  cursory  view  of 
the  many  important  subjects  which  present  themselves. 
We  shall  consider  in  what  manner  the  mental  powers 
should  be  disciplined  in  order  that  they  may  strengthen 
and  develope  themselves,  and  then  proceed  to  notice  the 
various  branches  of  literature  and  science  which  are  the 
subjects  of  your  present  studies. 

We  have  seen  under  the  head  of  physical  education,  how 
much  depends  on  habit,  and  it  was  remarked  that  intel- 
lectual habits  are  as  early  formed  and  of  as  permanent  a 
nature  as  those  which  relate  to  the  body.  Mr.  Locke  ob- 
serves, '  We  are  born  with  faculties  and  powers,  capable 
of  almost  anything ;  but  it  is  only  the  exercise  of  those 
powers  which  gives  us  ability  and  skill  in  anything,  and 
leads  us  towards  perfection.  As  it  is  in  the  body,  so  it 


DO  DIVISION   OF    MENTAL    FACULTIES. 

is  in  the  mind  ;  practice  makes  it  what  it  is,  and  most 
even  of  those  excellences  which  are  looked  on  as  natural 
endowments,  will  be  found,  when  examined  into  more  nar- 
rowly, to  be  the  product  of  exercise,  and  to  be  raised  to 
that  pitch  only  by  repeated  actions.'  Many  of  you  can 
bear  witness  to  the  truth  of  Mr.  Locke's  assertion,  respect- 
ing the  power  of  habit.  You  will  recollect  the  difficulty 
you  at  first  found  in  investigating  the  subjects  you  were 
required  to  study.  Accustomed  as  many  of  you  had 
been  to  a  mechanical  parrot-like  mode  of  recitation,  where 
the  memory  and  not  the  understanding  was  taxed,  you 
felt  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  study  and  recite  as 
your  classmates  did.  You  heard  them  give  long  analyses 
of  works  on  rhetoric,  history,  or  philosophy,  explain- 
ing in  their  own  words  with  clearness  and  facility  the 
ideas  of  their  authors  ;  and  you  believed  yourself  wholly 
incompetent  to  the  attainment  of  such  powers.  You 
heard  with  astonishment  those  of  your  own  age  demon- 
strating with  clearness  and  force  some  of  the  most  diffi- 
cult mathematical  propositions,  and  you  gave  them  credit 
for  faculties  of  a  higher  order  than  you  possessed.  You 
now  look  back  on  those  feelings  with  mingled  emotions 
of  shame  and  pride  ;  of  shame  that  you  should  thus  have 
undervalued  your  own  talents,  and  pride  that  you  have 
overcome  obstacles  and  acquired  a  habit  of  patient  inves- 
tigation. This  habit  is  of  infinitely  more  importance 
than  all  other  intellectual  attainments.  Were  a  person 
accustomed  to  reasoning,  reflecting,  comparing  and  judg- 
ing, to  be  required  to  give  up  those  mental  habits,  or  the 
knowledge  gained  by  their  means,  he  would  not  hesitate 
to  part  with  acquisitions  already  made,  rather  than  to 
lose  the  instruments  by  which  they  had  been  gained. 
Persons  who  have  gained  wealth  can  lay  aside  those  hab- 
its of  business  by  which  it  had  been  amassed,  feeling  as- 
sured that  they  shall  be  able  to  meet  their  future  wants  ; 
but  the  treasures  of  knowledge,  although  rich,  may  not 
thus  answer  for  future  occasions  ; — in  the  ever  varying, 
ever  changing  scenes  of  life,  we  are  continually  placed 
in  new  situations,  where  we  need  to  make  new  compari- 
sons, and  act  on  new  principles :  thus  we  require  the  in- 
struments of  mental  labor  to  be  ever  bright  and  ready  for 
use. 


CULTIVATION    OF    MENTAL    FACULTIES.  69 

In  the  view  we  are  now  taking  of  education  con- 
sidered in  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  mind,  it  may  be 
well  to  note  those  mental  faculties  which  it  is  the  object 
of  intellectual  improvement  to  cultivate  and  develope.  I 
shall  not,  as  we  proceed,  confine  myself  to  that  peculiar 
view  of  the  mind  which  the  author  whose  general  divis- 
ions I  have  adopted  has  given,  but  shall  use  the  terms 
reason,  judgment,  memory,  &c.  according  to  their  general 
acceptations,  viz.,  as  distinct  powers :  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  genera,  belonging  to  the  class  intellectual  pow- 
ers. I  shall  use  this  arrangement  for  the  sake  of  conve- 
nience, although  the  minuter  analysis  of  Dr.  Brown  very 
justly  reduces  the  many  supposed  intellectual  powers  un- 
der the  two  generic  terms,  simple  and  relative  suggestion, 
the  former  including  conception,  memory,  imagination 
and  habit;  the  latter  reason,  judgment,  abstraction,  the 
power  of.generalizing,  &-c. 

We  may  now  consider  the  human  mind  as  a  gar- 
den laid  out  before  us  :  he  who  created  this  garden, 
planted  in  it  the  seeds  of  various  faculties ;  these  do  in- 
deed spring  up  of  themselves,  but  without  education, 
they  will  be  stinted  in  their  growth,  choked  with  weeds, 
and  never  attain  that  strength  and  do  ation  of  which  they 
are  susceptible.  In  one  part  of  our  garden  the  germ 
of  reason  is  seen  to  unfold  itself,  in  another  appears  that 
of  memory,  in  another  that  of  judgment,  until  all  the  fac- 
ulties of  the  intellect  are  in  their  full  progress  of  develop- 
ment. The  emotions  and  passions  are  mingled  with 
powers  of  slower  growth  :  while  the  intellectual  gardener 
cultivates  the  latter  with  assiduous  care,  he  knows  that 
the  passions  need  his  most  vigilant  attention  ;  that  if  they 
grow  rank  andunpruned,  like  the  fatal  Bohan  Upas,  they 
will  poison  and  destroy  the  vital  principle  of  virtue,  and 
root  out  the  moral  harmony  on  which  the  beauty  of  the 
whole  depends  Leaving  the  passions  and  emotions  to  be 
hereafter  considered,  our  concern  now  is  with  those  men- 
tal germs  which  belong  to  the  intellectual  department. 
The  skilful  gardener  knows  that  his  roses  require  one  mode 
of  culture,  his  tulips  another,  and  his  geraniums  another ; 
and  that  attention  to  one  of  these,  will  not  bring  forward 
the  other.  So  ought  the  mental  cultivator  to  understand 


70  CULTIVATION    OF    MENTAL    FACULTIES. 

that  the  germs  of  the  various  faculties  should  be  simul- 
taneously brought  forward.  This  truth  seemed  not  to 
have  been  understood  by  those,  who,  bending  all  their  ef- 
forts towards  the  cultivation  of  the  memory,  neglected 
the  other  powers  of  the  mind. 

To  show  you  more  plainly  what  is  meant  by  these 
remarks,  I  will  state  a  very  common  fact  with  respect 
to  pupils  whose  memory  has  been  cultivated  at  the 
expense  of  their  other  faculties.  Many  such  have 
entered  this  institution,  flushed  with  the  hope  of  standing 
highest  in  their  classes,  as  they  had  done  where  only  mcm- 
oriter  recitations  were  required.  Confident  of  knowing 
'  every  word  of  her  lesson/  such  a  pupil  has  entered  her  class 
expecting  that  all  would  admire  the  fluency  with  which 
she  should  'say  it  off.'  Her  teacher,  instead  of  suggest- 
ing the  mere  words  of  the  lesson,  perhaps  demands  the 
nature  of  the  subject  she  has  been  studying :  this 
unexpected  question  confuses  her ;  for  the  truth  is,  she 
has  never  investigated  it  at  all ;  she  had  not  learned  that 
words  are  nothing,  except  as  they  are  the  medium  of 
communicating  ideas ;  she  had  always  taken  the  shadow 
for  the  substance,  and  is  now  astonished  that  she  harl  never 
before  thought  it  noocssaiy  tu  understand  what  she 
learned. 

The  mental  habit  of  exclusively  connecting  words  by 
the  mere  relation  of  contiguity,  is  very  injurious  to 
the  mind  :  when  a  pupil  becomes  aware7  of  the  un- 
profitableness of  the  exercise,  it  is  often  difficult  to  call 
forth  the  reasoning  powers,  which  have  hitherto  lain 
dormant.  On  the  other  hand,  that  exercise  of  memory 
which  depends  on  contiguity  or  juxta-position,  should 
not  be  neglected.  In  the  acquisition  of  certain  scien- 
ces, and  in  certain  departments  of  literature,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  some  things  should  be  learned  by  rote ;  as  in 
languages,  the  declensions  and  conjugations  of  words  ; 
and  in  arithmetic  the  numeration  and  other  tables ; 
portions  of  scripture  and  hymns  also  should  be  taught  to 
children,  even  though  they  are  above  their  compre- 
hension, for  in  after  life  they  may  be  remembered  with 
deep  interest  and  satisfaction.  As  the  other  powers 
develope,  the  faculty  of  remembering  words  in  a  certain 


CULTIVATION    OF    MENTAL    FACULTIES.  71 

order  is  weakened ;  thus  it  is  that  persons  accustomed 
to  deep  thinking,  find  it  almost  impossible  to  learn 
anything  by  rote ;  this  is  because  their  powers  of  reason- 
ing and  judging  have  been  much  more  exercised  than 
their  memory.  Those  who  acquire  habits  of  committing 
words  to  memory,  often  acquire  a  wonderful  facility  in 
this  respect ;  as  actors,  who  learn  long  parts  in  a  play 
in  a  very  short  time ;  and  some  orators  and  preachers, 
who  are  said  to  commit  to  memory  the  whole  of  their 
discourses  before  they  appear  in  public. 

We  should  not  however  expect  that  a  mind,  fertile  in 
suggestions  of  analogy,  glancing  quick  from  cause  to 
effect,  and  from  secondary  to  primary  causes,  would 
possess  this  kind  of  local  memory  in  a  great  degree.  Of 
some  persons  distinguished  for  the  greatness  of  their  con- 
ceptions, and  richness  of  their  acquirements,  it  has  been 
found  that  even  their  own  productions,  have  in  progress 
of  time  been  forgotten  by  them  ; — others  when  writing 
upon  a  subject  they  had  before  treated  of,  seem  to  forget 
what  they  had  before  written ;  their  thoughts  taking  a  new 
turn,  their  language  and  arrangements  are  found  to  be  es- 
sentially different.  It  is  not  my  present  intention  to  give  a 
dissertation  on  the  mind,  any  farther  than  to  show  that  its 
nature  must  be  studied  by  those  who  would  succeed  in  its 
cultivation,  and  that  it  is  important  for  you,  as  pupils,  to 
learn  as  much  as  possible  of  your  own  mental  constitu- 
tions. Besides  the  general  laws,  which  are  common  to  all 
minds,  each  has  its  constitutional  differences,  and  its 
peculiar  habits.  Where  you  find  your  mind  most  weak 
by  nature,  you  should  strive  most  to  strengthen  it  by 
suitable  exercises.  Where  you  find  your  intellectual 
habits  defective,  you  must  endeavor  to  change  and 
improve  them.  For  those  who  have  been  little  accus- 
tomed to  the  exercise  of  the  reasoning  powers,  it  is  well 
to  enter  upon  a  course  of  mathematical  studies.  Locke 
says,  '  I  consider  mathematics  as  a  way  to  settle  in  the 
mind  a  habit  of  reasoning  closely  and  in  a  train ;  not 
that  I  think  it  necessary  that  all  should  be  deep  mathe- 
maticians, but  that  having  got  the  way  of  reasoning 
which  that  study  brings  the  mind  to,  they  might  be  able 
to  transfer  it  to  other  parts  of  knowledge  as  they  have 
occasion.' 


72  MENTAL    DISCIPLINE. 

The  same  writer  observes  in  another  part  of  his 
*  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding,3  that  an  acquaint- 
ance with  even  the  first  book  of  Euclid's  Elements 
of  Geometry  is  of  great  use  to  the  mind,  as  unfolding  a 
beautiful  and  systematic  method  of  reasoning. 

I  shall  close  this  Lecture,  by  giving  a  few  rules,  to 
assist  you  in  the  attempt  to  improve  and  discipline 
your  own  mental  powers. 

First,  Study  the  nature  of  your  own  minds. 

In  order  to  assist  you  in  this,  compare  yourselves  with 
others.  Observe  their  recitations,  the  particulars  in 
which  they  excel  or  are  deficient.  Notice  whether  they 
find  the  same  difficulties  that  you  do.  It  is  also  a  very 
useful  exercise  for  two  or  more  pupils  of  nearly  equal 
abilities,  to  write  upon  some  one  given  subject,  and  then 
compare  their  ideas  and  manner  of  treating  the  same 
subject.  While  you  should  be  careful  not  to  set  your 
mark  loo  low,  and  thus  fail  of  what  you  might  attain ; 
it  is  also  important  that  you  do  not  tax  yourselves  too 
heavily  and  thus  injure  the  mind  by  overstraining  its 
powers. 

Second,  Never  consider  a  lesson  learned  until  you  can 
give  the  author's  ideas  in  your  own  words,  or  at  least  till 
you  can  point  out  the  prominent  parts  of  which  it  consists. 

This  method  of  studying  is  the  reverse  of  learning  by 
rote ;  it  is  acquired  by  practice,  and  is  the  only  proper 
way  of  attempting  to  gain  knowledge.  It  is  impossible, 
after  having  read  several  pages  of  a  work,  to  remember 
every  idea  which  an  author  has  advanced ;  you  should 
therefore  strive  to  comprehend  the  main  scope  of  his 
argument,  and  not  dwell  upon  the  less  important  ideas. 
Many  pupils,  from  attempting  to  remember  everything, 
fail  in  attaining  a  clear  knowledge  of  anything.  This 
habit  of  discriminating  the  more  from  the  less  important 
ideas  in  reading  and  studying,  will  be  of  great  utility  in 
after  life.  A  facility  is  thus  gained  of  collecting,  almost 
at  a  glance,  the  subject  of  a  whole  page. 

It  is  by  following  the  rule  above  given,  that  some 
of  your  fellow  students  have  been  able  to  give  an 
analysis  of  the  unabridged  volumes  of  Brown's  Philoso- 
phy of  the  mind.  They  could  never  have  accomplished 


MENTAL    DISCIPLINE.  73 

so  Herculean  a  task,  but  that  they  first  learned  the  leading 
argument  of  each  page,  then  of  each  lecture,  and  then 
of  the  principal  departments  of  the  work ;  and  thus 
were  able,  in  a  few  months,*  to  give  with  clearness  the 
general  arrangement  of  the  whole  work,  with  the  minor 
divisions,  and  the  principal  ideas  under  each. 

Third, — Accustom  yourselves  to  express  your  ideas  on 
the  various  subjects  of  study,  in  writing. 

The  practice  of  writing  an  analysis,  or  making  a 
sketch  of  the  lessons  you  are  studying,  is  a  very  good 
one ;  but  this  cannot  be  done  until  you  have  prepared 
yourself  for  it  by  previous  study.  By  attempting  to 
make  an  outline  before  a  view  of  the  whole  has  been 
taken,  the  mind  is  confused  rather  than  assisted.  It 
is  well  to  make  the  sciences  you  study  the  subjects  of 
your  weekly  compositions,  sometimes  taking  them  in 
one  point  of  view,  sometimes  in  another. 

Fourth, — Improve  the  best  hours  of  the  day  to  secure 
those  lessons  ichich  require  the  greatest  mental  effort. 

The  season  most  favorable  for  study  is  with  most 
persons,  the  morning ;  the  body  being  then  refreshed  by\ 
sleep,  and  the  mind  by  a  suspension  of  effort ;  your 
most  difficult  lessons,  as  mathematics,  or  philosophy, 
should  be  studied.  Drawing,  music,  botany,  chemistry, 
and  other  pursuits  which  are  not  of  an  abstract  nature, 
can  excite  an  interest  even  when  the  mind  is  fatigued. 
But  when  the  mind  appears  in  any  degree  overstrained, 
it  should  be  suffered  to  relax,  until  it  spontaneously  recov- 
ers its  tone.  It  is  evident  that  in  all  intellectual  as  well 
as  mechanical  labors,  the  work  accomplished  must  be  in 
proportion  to  the  power  exerted.  When  the  mind  is 
languid  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  put  forth  power,  time  can- 
not make  up  for  mental  energy.  One  hour  of  success- 
ful effort  is  worth  more  than  days  of  weak  attempts. 
In  order  to  keep  the  mind  active,  regularity  must  be  ob- 
served in  exercise,  diet,  and  sleep :  they  gain  nothing 
who  disregard  the  body  in  their  zeal  for  mental  improve- 

*  This  study  is  generally  pursued  in  the  institution  in  connexion 
with  some  other  branches. 


74  MENTAL    DISCIPLINE, 

merit ;  if  disordered  or  enfeebled,  it  will  certainly  react 
upon  the  mind. 

Fifth, — Endeavor  to  fix  your  attention  exclusively  upon 
the  study  in  which  you  are  engaged. 

Attention  is  indeed  every  thing;  without  it  nothing 
requiring  mental  effort  can  be  well  done.  In  bodily  op- 
erations we  may  acquire  so  great  a  facility  of  execution 
that  we  have  no  need  of  attention :  thus  a  musician  can 
perform  a  familiar  air  without  thinking  of  his  notes. 
Some  feminine  employments,  as  sewing  or  knitting,  ope- 
rations which  at  first  seemed  complicated,  in  time  be- 
come so  familiar  as  to  require  no  attention ;  the  hands 
seem  instinctively  to  perform  the  accustomed  move- 
ments :  but  mental  exercises  demand  attention. 

It  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  task  of  young  students 
to  gain  that  command  of  their  trains  of  thought  which 
scientific  research  requires.  How  many  are  diverted 
from  the  subject  upon  which  they  engage,  by  the  most 
trifling  circumstances  ;  even  the  appearance  of  a  fly  upon 
a  window,  an  object  in  the  street,  or  a  slight  noise  in  an 
adjoining  apartment,  are  each  sufficient  to  call  off  their 
attention.  And  if  even  no  pretence  should  offer,  the 
mind  wearied  with  the  unusual  attempt  at  investigation, 
gladly  goes  in  search  of  some  more  pleasing  exercise  of 
its  powers.  The  enjoyments  of  home  are  called  up ;  the 
days  or  weeks  are  counted  which  have  intervened  since 
the  dear  spot  was  left,  and  the  many  which  are  to  pass 
until  examination  is  over  and  these  tedious  books  can 
for  a  time  be  laid  aside. 

But  I  will  not  attempt  to  imagine  all  the  reveries  in 
which  a  school  girl  may  indulge,  even  when  demurely 
looking  at  her  book,  during  the  allotted  time  for  learning 
her  lessons.  Your  own  consciences  can  say  how  often 
the  ringing  of  the  recitation  bell  has  found  you  unpre- 
pared, after  such  unprofitable  aberrations  of  thought.  But 
let  me  urge  all  who  are  conscious  of  such  injurious  hab- 
its, to  strive  to  acquire  an  ascendancy  over  yourselves, 
by  carefully  guarding  the  avenues  of  your  minds.  Be 
resolute  against  admitting  desultory  thoughts,  when  you 
need  all  your  concentrated  mental  powers  to  bear  upon 
the  subject  before  you.  The  task  will  at  first  be  diffi- 


SPELLING.  75 

•cult,  but  you  may  in  time  have  the  satisfaction  of  feeling 
that  you  can  fix  your  attention,  or  govern  your  trains  of 
thought. 

Sixth, — Endeavor  to  understand  as  far  as  possible  the 
nature,  objects  and  ultimate  end  of  the  studies  you  pur  sue. 

Thus,  when  questioned  as  to  your  progress  in  education 
you  may  be  able  to  state  what  you  have  done,  what  you 
design  to  do,  and  the  bearing  which  all  this  is  intended 
to  have  upon  your  future  life.  With  such  ideas  as  these 
fixed  in  your  mind,  you  will  not,  when  hereafter  questioned 
as  to  what  you  did  in  school,  have  occasion  to  say  with  the 
young  lady,  who,  returning  from  a  boarding  school,  and 
being  asked  what  she  had  studied,  answered,  that  she 
'  could  not  tell  without  looking  at  her  books,  and  they 
were  all  in  her  trunks/ 

May  you,  my  dear  pupils,  have  your  intellectual  and 
moral  natures  imbued  with  the  instructions  you  are  now 
receiving ;  and  may  the  fruits  of  an  enlarged  and  liberal 
-education  appear  in  elevation  of  character,  and  the  adapta- 
tion of  your  minds  to  the  various  exigencies  of  life ; — 
may  you  be  not  only  intelligent  and  intellectual  women, 
but  good  members  of  society,  faithful  and  judicious  in 
all  your  relations  in  life,  and  above  all,  pious  and  consist- 
ent Christians. 


LECTURE  VII. 

Reading. — Spelling,. — A  rticulate  Sounds. 

FROM  our  previous  remarks  upon  intellectual  improve- 
ment, it  may  be  inferred  that  a  proper  discipline  of  the 
mind  is  of  still  greater  importance  to  the  young,  than 
the  mere  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

The  various  branches  of  modern  education  have  been 
considered  under  two  heads  :  1.  Such  as  seem  chiefly 
valuable  on  account  of  their  effect  in  strengthening  and 
developing  the  mental  powers.  2.  Such  as  are  chiefly 
useful  for  the  knowledge  they  convey.  In  the  former 


76  SPELLING. 

class  are  ranked  mathematics  and  languages ;  in  the  lat- 
ter, geography,  history,  &c. 

We  cannot,  however,  make  any  definite  classification  of 
the  different  departments  of  learning  on  these  principles, 
since  the  acquisition  of  any  one  science  has  a  beneficial 
effect  on  the  mind,  whose  capacity  for  receiving  increases 
in  proportion  as  it  receives.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
is  no  science  but  may  be  highly  useful  in  its  applications. 

Geography,  which  is  considered  chiefly  useful  for  the 
knowledge  of  facts  which  it  communicates,  affords  exer- 
cise for  many  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind;  the  memory 
in  retaining  facts,  the  power  of  comparison  when  viewing 
different  countries  with  their  peculiarities  as  to  physical 
and  moral  condition,  of  abstraction  when  a  river  or  moun- 
tian  are  considered  without  reference  to  any  other  cir- 
cumstance. Geometry,  which  is  so  higly  recommended 
by  Locke  and  others,  for  its  influence  in  training  the 
mind  to  habits  of  reasoning  and  methodical  arrangement, 
has  its  practical  applications  to  astronomy,  drawing,  nat- 
ural philosophy,  and  mechanics. 

With  respect  to  the  various  branches  of  natural  science, 
botany,  chemistry,  &c.,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say 
whether  they  are  most  to  be  valued  for  their  intrinsic 
utility,  or  for  their  salutary  influence  upon  the  mind. 
The  inquiry  is  often  made  of  what  use  can  it  be  for  a  fe- 
male to  study  botany  or  chemistry.  Such  inquiries  show 
either  an  illiberal  spirit,  or  great  ignorance.  Considered 
in  reference  to  the  mind  only,  these  studies  are  of  vast 
importance ;  botany  accustoms  the  mind  to  systematic 
arrangement,  definite  rules  of  classifications,  and  strict 
attention  to  the  import  of  terms ;  chemistry,  by  its  minute 
analysis,  gives  a  habit  of  discrimination  and  observation, 
which  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  all,  especially  to 
those  who  are  about  commencing  the  journey  of  life. 
Neither  are  these  sciences  without  their  important  prac- 
tical applications ;  these  will  be  considered  when  we  come 
to  treat  of  each  individually. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  the  various  branches  of  fe- 
male education,  endeavoring  to  give  general  views  of 
the  different  sciences,  their  origin  and  history,  their  ad- 
vantages and  practical  applications.  The  first  step  in 


SPELLING.  77 

the  literary  education  of  a  child  after  it  has  learned  the 
alphabet,  is  that  to  put  the  letters  together,  forming  the 
compound  sounds  called  syllables;  and  then  to  unite 
these  syllables  into  words.  This  process  is  called  spelling., 
and  also  orthography,  from  the  Greek  orthos,  correct,  and 
graphia,  writing,  meaning  to  write  words  correctly.  The 
term  orthoepy  from  orthos,  correct,  and  epoy  I  speak,  sig- 
nifies correct  pronunciation. 

The  habit  of  spelling  correctly  is  an  acquirement  so 
necessary,  that  the  want  of  it  cannot  be  overlooked  ia 
any  one  who  makes  pretensions  to  an  education  above 
the  lowest  grade.  There  are,  indeed,  persons  who,  al- 
though deprived  of  the  means  of  early  improvement,  have, 
by  industry  and  talents,  gained  wealth  and  influence 
without  being  able  to  spell  correctly.  But  such  feel  their 
deficiency  with  the  keenest  sense  of  mortification,  and 
would  be  the  first  to  caution  young  persons  against  care- 
lessness in  this  respect. 

It  might  seem  as  if  in  addressing  the  members  of  this 
institution,  it  were  unnecessary  to  dwell  for  a  moment  on 
the  importance  of  a  branch  of  education  which  it  is  the 
business  of  primary  schools  to  teach,  and  which  you 
ought  to  be  perfected  in,  before  your  entrance  into  this. 
Yet  I  am  sorry  to  say,  that  too  many,  who  are  ambitious 
of  the  higher  walks  of  literature,  are  careless  in  this  re- 
spect. 

Owing  to  the  defective  method  of  teaching  spelling  in 
many  primary  schools,  pupils  often  leave  them  with  little 
practical  knowledge  of  this  important  branch.  To  learn 
to  spell  long  columns  of  words,  arranged  without  any  re- 
ference to  their  meaning,  proves  not  to  be  of  much  use 
when  the  pupil  attempts  to  write.  I  have  known  a  pupil 
who  was  distinguished  as  the  best  speller  in  a  common 
school,  and  who  seldom  was  known  to  '  miss  a  word  in  her 
lesson/  scarcely  able  to  write  a  letter  which  could  be  read, 
from  the  badness  of  its  orthography.  She  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  connect  the  letters  with  the  sound  of  the  words. 
In  schools  where  the  only  method  of  spelling  is  with  the 
voice,  it  is  customary  for  the  pupils  in  studying  their  les- 
sons to  move  the  lips,  and  many  cannot  study  without 
doing  this.  In  writing,  the  eye  must  be  practised  in  order  to 
7* 


78  SPELLING, 

detect  erroneous  spelling.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we 
approve  and  practise  the  mode  of  teaching  spelling  by 
dictation,  or  the  pupils  writing  words  upon  a  slate,  or  a 
black  board,  after  the  dictation  of  the  teacher.  By  care- 
fully following  this  mode,  you  may  soon  correct  any  bad 
habits  with  regard  to  spelling,  which  you  have  been  suf- 
fered to  form. 

I  trust  you  are  all  aware  that  with  respect  to  young  la- 
dies who  enjoy  your  advantages,  bad  spelling  cannot  be  tol- 
erated. This  would  not  only  be  disgraceful  to  yourselves, 
but  to  the  institution  to  which  you  belong.  Some  may 
feel  that  they  are  too  old,  and  have  too  much  to  do  to  join 
the  class  in  dictation,  who  are  yet  conscious  that  they  are 
deficient  in  spelling.  To  such,  a  dictionary  must  be  a  con- 
stant writing  companion.  Yet  should  you,  after  all  your 
care,  have  the  mortification  of  seeing  your  compositions 
returned  from  the  teachers  with  the  .spelling  corrected, 
let  me  recommend  to  you  to  make  a  memorandum  of  the 
words  misspelt,  with  their  true  orthography,  so  that  you 
may  be  sure  of  not  committing  the  same  error  the  second 
time.*  I  have  known  pupils  acquire  such  an  inveterate 
habit  of  misspelling  certain  words,  that  after  frequent  cor- 
rections, their  compositions  would  continue  to  exhibit  the 
same  mistakes ;  this  is  not  only  careless  in  the  extreme, 
but  disrespectful,  showing  that  neither  self-interest,  or 
a  regard  to  her  teacher,  operates  in  the  mind  of  one 
who  is  thus,  after  repeated  admonition,  guilty  of  the  same 
fault. 

There  are  some  words  of  irregular  orthography,  which 
many  are  liable  to  mistake  ;  as  receive,  in  which  the  e  pre- 
cedes i,  contrary  to  more  frequent  usage,  as  in  friend,  be- 
lieve, &,c.  where  e  follows  i.  Words  which  take  an  addi- 
tional syllable  in  respect  to  doubling  the  final  letter  ;  from 
permit,  we  have  permitted,  while  from  visit  we  have 
visited.  The  rule  for  doubling  the  t  in  the  first  case,  and 
not  in  the  second,  is  that  in  permit  the  accent  is  on  the 

*  In  making  out  such  a  list  of  words,  only  the  correct  mode  of 
spelling  should  be  copied.  If  the  false  orthography  is  set  by  the 
side  of  the  true,  the  person  will  always  be  in  doubt  as  to  the  right 
way  ;  for  by  the  principle  of  association  the  one  is  no  less  readily 
-suggested  than  the  other. 


ARTICULATE    SOUNDS.  79 

last  syllable,  and  in  visit,  on  the  first ;  it  being  a  general 
rule,  that  a  word  ending  with  a  consonant,  and  having  the 
last  syllable  accented,  doubles  the  consonant  on  the  ad- 
dition of  another  syllable,  while  a  word  ending  with  a 
consonant  and  not  having  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
dpes  not  double  the  final  consonant. 

A  few  rules  for  spelling  should  be  written  in  your 
memorandum  book  ;  for  dictionaries  will  not  assist  you  in 
the  case  of  many  derivative  words.  Thus,  from  the  primi- 
tive word  holy  come  the  degrees  of  comparison  holier,  ho- 
liest ;  but  if  the  y  at  the  end  of  a  word  have  not  a  conso- 
nant before  it,  it  is  not  changed  into  i  on  the  addition 
of  another  syllable,  as  from  joy  is  derived  joyful. 

Connected  with  the  subject  of  spelling,  is  that  of  the 
sounds  and  powers  of  letters.  With  modern  im- 
provements in  education,  there  is  a  neglect  of  some  parti- 
culars which  were  more  thoroughly  attended  to  when 
many  fountains  of  knowledge  were  sealed,  which  are  now 
open  to  the  young  student.  Formerly  the  introduction  to 
We'bster's  Spelling  Book,  containing  in  some  three  or  four 
pages,  rules  for  accent,  the  sounds  of  letters,  &c.,  fur- 
nished matter  for  months  of  study.  Although  we  would 
not  wish  to  bring  back  those  barren  days  of  education,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  scarcity  of  school  books  ensured 
a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  some  of  the  elementary 
branches. 

I  have  sometimes  found,  to  my  great  surprise,  a  young 
lady  quick  to  comprehend  mathematical  truths,  who 
knew  something  of  Latin,  and  was  perhaps  a  proficient  in 
French,  puzzled  to  -tell  the  difference  between  accent 
and  emphasis,  or  to  give  a  rule  for  pronouncing  g  likej 
in  giant,  and  with  a  hard  sound  in  go,  or  for  giving  c  dif- 
«rent  sounds  in  cedar  and  cable. 

There  is  in  the  study  of  articulate  sounds  and  the  powers 
of  letters,  much  deep  philosophy  ;.  arid  whoever  thinks  it 
beneath  attention,  little  understands  its  importance  or  diffi- 
culties. It  is  easy  to  tell  the  difference  between  a  vowel 
and  consonant,  a  mute  and  a  semivowel;  but  to  understand 
fully  the  nature  of  articulation,  we  must  study  the  various 
modifications  which  the  air  sent  out  by  the  lungs,  is  ca- 
pable of,  in  order  to  produce  die  wonderful  variety  of 
sounds  whhin  the  compass  of  the  human  voice. 


80  ARTICULATE    SOUNDS. 

f  Dr.  Paley  observes,  '  the  lungs  are  to  animal  utterance 
what  the  bellows  are  to  the  organ  ;  they  are  air  vessls 
which  become  inflated  and  then  collapsed  as  the  air  is  in- 
spired or  expired/  You  can  perceive  that  in  respiration 
the  chest  alternately  expands  and  contracts.  This  mo- 
tion is  caused  by  the  action  of  the  lungs,  which  are  two 
spongy  lobes,  or  divisions  suspended  in  the  chest,  being 
connected  with  the  trachea,  or  wind-pipe  at  the  upper 
part.  The  air  which  enters  the  lungs  is  received  into  the 
minute  cavities  of  which  they  are  composed  ;  these  are 
called  air  cells.  We  cannot  at  this  time  describe  the 
manner  in  which  the  air  is  expelled  from  the  lungs,  the 
effect  of  respiration  upon  the  blood,  and  the  motion,  of  the 
heart  caused  by  the  constant  rushing  of  the  blood  from  this 
to  the  lungs  and  from  the  lungs  to  the  heart,  with  the 
change  that  takes  place  in  the  nature  of  the  blood  after 
coming  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which  is  in- 
haled by  the  lungs  ;  though  all  this  is  easily  explained  and 
comprehended. 

At  present  we  are  only  to  consider  the  lungs  in  refer- 
ence to  their  office  in  furnishing  the  air  necessary  for  ar- 
ticulating sounds.  This  air  passes  back  through  the 
windpipe,  which  is  that  tube  that  we  can  feel  externally 
to  be  composed  of  cartilaginous  rings.  *  The  top  of  the 
windpipe  is  called  the  larynx ;  at  the  upper  part  of  this, 
and  behind  the  tongue,  is  the  glottis,  a  very  small  open- 
ing through  which  the  breath  and  voice  are  conveyed. 
It  is  in  the  passage  of  the  air  through  this  minute  aper- 
ture that  articulate  sounds  are  formed.  By  means  of  va- 
rious muscles  or  threads,  which  draw  in  different  direc- 
tions, the  glottis  is  susceptible  of  many  degrees  of  expan- 
sion, and  it  is  by  varying  this  cavity  that  the  different 
vowels  are  sounded.  The  air  in  passing  a  large  cavity, 
produces  a  low  or  flat  sound,  through  a  small  cavity,  a 
high  or  sharp  sound.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  vowels 
a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  which  proceed  in  regular  order  from  low  and 
flat  to  high  and  sharp  sounds. 

Oral  language,  or  speech,  consists  of  articulate  sounds  ; 
brutes  utter  various  inarticulate  sounds,  expressive  of 
their  peculiar  feelings.  The  cat  when  quietly  reposing  by 
the  parlor  fire,  expresses  her  satisfaction  by  a  gentle  pur- 


READING.  81 

ring ;  when  her  capricious  little  mistress  amuses  herself 
by  tormenting  her,  she  vents  her  sorrows  in  piteous  mew* 
ing ;  and  when  roused  to  anger  by  the  cruelty  of  the 
dog,  she  growls  her  indignation.  Mankind  also  have 
means  of  expressing  violent  emotions  by  inarticulate 
sounds,  as  by  laughing,  crying,  or  screaming.  But  it  is 
only  by  articulate  sounds  and  their  representatives,  that 
intercourse  can  be  satisfactorily  carried  on  between  ra- 
tional minds  ;  these  are  the  links  which  bind  together  our 
spirits — they  are  wings  by  whose  means  the  soul  is  borne 
from  its  corporeal  prison  to  unite  in  the  interchange  of 
thought  and  feeling  with  kindred  souls. 

May  this  gift  of  a  bountiful  Creator  never  be  perverted 
by  you,  my  dear  pupils,  to  unworthy  purposes ;  may  your 
words  be  a  true  index  of  your  hearts,  pure,  gentle  and 
kind.  A  deceitful  world  may  tell  you  that  falsehood 
and  dissimulation  are  necessary,  but  believe  it  not.  True 
politeness  is  consistent  with  sincerity  or  singleness  of 
heart,  and  if  you  once  lose  this,  and  commence  a  system 
of  duplicity  your  whole  lives  may  become  a  tissue  of  ar- 
tifice and  hypocrisy.  Let  your  hearts  be  pure,  and  you 
need  not  fear  to  have  their  true  image  reflected  to  the 
world.  He  who  gave  you  the  power  of  language,  adapt- 
ing your  bodily  organs  in  so  wonderful  and  complicated 
a  manner  to  this  object,  requires  that  you  order  your 
speech  in  sincerity  and  wisdom. 


LECTURE  VIII. 

Reading. 

IF  God  had  formed  us  for  solitude,  he  would  not  have 
given  us  the  wish  to  converse  with  other  minds;  or  if, 
like  brutes,  we  had  been  irrational,  we  should  not  have 
needed  language.  Speech  peculiarly  distinguishes  man 
from  the  other  living  beings  on  earth. 

The  word  language  is  derived  from  the  Latin  Iingua9 


82  READING. 

tongue,  and  originally  signified  only  the  communication 
of  ideas  by  articulate  sounds.  Its  signification  is  now 
extended  not  only  to  the  communication  of  ideas  by 
writing,  but  we  speak  of  the  language  of  the  passions,  as 
expressed  by  various  natural  signs.  The  division  which 
is  generally  made  of  language  is  into  oral*  and  written. 
The  sciences  which  have  an  especial  relation  to  language, 
considered  as  an  instrument  of  conveying  those  thoughts, 
are  grammar,  rhetoric,  logic  and  criticism.  Grammar' 
teaches  us  to  arrange  words,  answerably  to  certain  rules 
of  agreement  and  government ;  rhetoric  teaches  the  use 
of  figurative  language,  and  gives  directions  for  attaining 
clearness  and  precision  in  style ;  logic  teaches  the  meth- 
od of  arranging  words  in  a  certain  manner,  in  order  to 
establish  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  propositions  ;  criticism 
teaches  on  what  principles  of  the  mind  depend  our  tastes 
for  various  kinds  of  style,  and  brings  to  the  test  of  those 
principles  the  writings  of  various  authors.  All  other 
sciences  are  communicated  by  means  of  language,  but 
these  have  for  their  object  language  itself,  or  in  other 
words,  in  these  sciences  language  is  not  only  the  instru- 
ment with  which  the  operation  is  carried  on,  but  the  ob- 
ject upon  which  it  is  performed. 

Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  principles  on  which 
language  is  founded,  we  will  make  some  remarks  upon 
reading,  which  is  the  next  step  to  spelling,  in  the  scale 
of  literary  knowledge  ;  indeed  modern  education  usually 
proceeds  with  both  at  the  same  time,  not  waiting  for  a 
child  to  be  able  to  spell  words  of  several  syllables,  before 
he  is  allowed  to  experience  the  new  emotions  connected 
with  an  exercise  which  brings  the  thoughts  of  others  to 
him  when  he  is  alone,  and  opens  to  him  a  new  and  de- 
lightful source  of  enjoyment.  As  soon  as  a  child  knows 
its  alphabet,  it  can  be  taught  that  m  y  spell  my,  and  that 
cat  spell  cat ;  he  can  then  put  the  words  together  and 
read,  my  cat.  In  a  short  time  he  can  be  taught  to  read 
little  stories  composed  of  words  of  one  syllable,  and  from 
this,  the  transition  is  easy  to  words  of  more  than  one  syl- 
lable. 

*  From  os,  oris,  the  mouth. 


READING.  83 

It  is  but  a  few  years  since  teaching  a  child  to  read 
was  a  very  different  process  from  this.  The  little  mar- 
tyr in  commencing  his  education,  was  sent  to  school  to 
be  confined  for  many  long  hours  in  the  day,  upon  a  hard 
seat,  with  only  the  occasional  change  of  being  called  up 
for  a  few  minutes  to  say  his  letters.  The  alphabet  pre- 
sented was  often  in  a  small,  obscure  type,  and  printed  on 
bad  paper.  The  teacher  pointing  to  the  letters,  pro- 
nounced their  names,  requiring  the  child  to  repeat  them 
after  him.  This  becoming  an  exercise  wholly  mechanical, 
day  after  day  passed  bringing  the  poor  child  apparently 
no  nearer  the  completion  of  the  formidable  task  of  learn- 
ing its  letters.  From  the  principle  of  association  he  be- 
comes able  to  call  one  letter  after  another  when  they  are 
presented  in  regular  order;  but  taken  separately  and  in 
any  other  place  than  the  accustomed  column  of  letters, 
they  are  as  unintelligible  as  Hebrew  or  Greek  charac- 
ters. I  have  known  children  of  good  abilities  tortured 
for  months  and  even  years  in  this  absurd  and  stupifying 
method  of  teaching ;  and  when  the  teacher,  in  despair,  has 
put  them  upon  spelling,  the  work  has  been  found  to  be 
accomplished  ;  as  a  few  exercises  of  this  kind  connect 
in  the  child's  mind  the  form  with  the  sound  of  the  let- 
ters. 

But  here  again  the  child's  progress  is  interrupted  by 
the  mistaken  idea,  that  before  beginning  to  read,  he 
must  be  able  to  spell  words  of  several  syllables.  He 
reads  abasement,  ambiguity  and  cotemporary,  with  a  mind 
entirely  vacant  of  thought ;  indeed,  he  is  not  aware  that 
the  words  have  any  meaning,  or  any  other  use  than  to 
fill  the  columns  in  his  spelling  book.  The  reading  les- 
sons first  presented  were  often  dry  and  abstract  proposi- 
tions, wholly  beyond  the  comprehension  of  any  child, 
even  one  whose  mental  powers  had  been  properly  culti- 
vated. In  the  most  popular  spelling  book*  which  has 
been  in  use  for  the  last  half  century  in  our  common 
schools,  the  first  lessons  in  reading  are  of  this  nature. 
There  are,  however,  in  the  book,  some  things  of  a  differ- 
ent kind  ;  and  the  story  of  the  '  old  man  who  found  a  rude 

*  Webster's. 


84  READING. 


id  by 


boy  upon  one  of  his  trees  stealing  apples/  is  perused  by 
the  young  student  with  great  delight,  for  the  simple  rea- 
son, that  he  can  understand  it. 

The  method  of  infant  school  education  affords  a  pleas- 
ing contrast  to  that  just  described.  Knowledge  is  here 
made  easy  and  pleasant ;  the  intellectual  faculties  are 
roused  by  objects  addressed  to  the  senses.  Pictures  with 
their  names  attached  are  presented  to  the  children ;  and 
in  deciphering  theoe  names,  they  learn  to  consider  words 
as  representatives  of  things.  In  process  of  time,  it  is  easy 
for  them  to  learn  that  words  may  also  be  the  representa- 
tives of  ideas. 

The  different  manner  in  which  children  read,  who  are 
taught  by  these  two  processes  is  apparent.  A  child  un- 
accustomed to  consider  written  language  as  the  sign  for 
things  and  ideas,  or  to  read  without  knowledge  or  inter- 
est, would  have  no  idea  of  emphasis  or  intonations.  The 
habit  of  reading  mechanically  once  formed,  is  with  dif- 
ficulty broken,  even  after  the  development  of  reason,  and 
the  cultivation  of  taste  exhibits  written  characters  as  kin- 
dled by  the  fire  of  genius,  or  glowing  with  the  most  im- 
passioned feeling. 

To  early  defects  in  education,  we  must  attribute  the 
fact,  that  there  are  among  us,  few  good  readers.  There 
are  many  requisites  for  good  reading,  besides  early  hab- 
its. It  requires  not  only  knowledge  of  language,  of  the 
derivation  and  signification  of  words,  but  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  passions  of  the  human  heart,  and  with  the 
different  tones  in  which  they  should  be  expressed.  It  re- 
quires also  a  quick  conception  to  seize  upon  the  meaning 
of  a  passage,  so  that  for  the  moment,  the  author's  spirit 
shall  seem  to  be  transferred  to  the  breast  of  the  reader. 
All  this  is  necessary  in  order  to  read  well ;  is  it  there- 
fore wonderful  that  there  are  so  few  good  readers  ?  How 
common  is  it  to  hear  a  pathetic  passage  read  with  an  air 
of  indifference,  and  without  the  slightest  intonation  of  the 
voice,  a  lively  description  without  animation,  or  an  argu- 
mentative discourse  without  emphasis  or  force. 

Rules  for  reading  may  do  something,  example  may  do 
much ;  but  after  all,  good  reading  must  be  the  effect  of 
feeling,  taste  and  information.  You  can  understand, 


HEADING.  85 

that,  important  as  this  attainment  is,  it  is  dependent  on 
almost  every  other  branch  of  education.  By  the  general 
improvement  of  your  minds,  therefore,  can  you  be  ex- 
pected to  arrive  at  that  perfection  in  this  accomplish- 
ment, which  a  well  educated  woman  ought  to  exhibit. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  parents  on  committing  their 
daughters  to  our  care,  to  express  a  wish  that  they  may  be- 
come good  readers,  before  they  proceed  to  other  branches 
of  education.  But  reason  and  experience  pronounce  it 
impossible  for  an  ignorant  person  to  read  well ;  such  an 
one  may  acquire  an  habit  of  calling  words  correctly,  of 
minding  stops  and  marks,  and  observing  all  the  artificial 
rules  for  reading,  but  the  soul  will  be  wanting  ! — I  would 
rather  hear  a  person  read,  who  did  not  even  know  that  a 
comma  was  a  pause  of  one  syllable  and  a  semicolon  two, 
and  yet  could  comprehend  an  author's  meaning,  and  ap- 
ply the  rules  which  nature  suggests,  than  one  who  had 
acquired  a  servile  habit  of  applying  arbitrary  rules, 
without  taste  or  feeling.  Not  that  I  would  have  you 
disregard  rules,  but  you  should  remember  that  they 
have  been  suggested  by  nature,  as  that  the  sense  of 
a  passage,  and  not  its  punctuation,  should  guide  your  read- 
ing. Nothing  is  more  common  than  errors  in  printing^ 
by  which,  owing  to  the  misplacing  of  a  comma,  or  other 
pause,  the  sense  of  a  sentence  is  destroyed.  You  must 
then  learn  to  judge  for  yourselves  where  the  sense  requires 
a  pause ;  and  as  to  emphasis  and  intonations,  they  must 
absolutely  be  left  to  your  own  judgement.  In  selecting 
passages  to  read  before  the  school,*  let  me  advise  you 
never  to  begin  with  any  thing  you  do  not  well  understand. 
A  knowledge  of  languages,  particularly  the  Latin  and 
French,  is  of  great  use  in  assisting  a  reader  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  words  derived  from  foreign  sources. 

This  however  is  not  an  occasion  for  particular  di- 
rections as  to  your  improvement  in  reading ;  the  in- 
structions which  you  are  receivingf  in  this  branch, 

*  On  Wednesdays  a  certain  number  of  pupils  read  before  the 
whole  school  pieces  of  their  own  selection. 

t  The  excellent  treatise  on  elocution,  by  Porter,  is  made  a  text 
book  for  reading  exercises  and  instructions. 

8 


80  READING. 

added  to  your  general  course  of  education  can  scarcely 
fail  of  giving  you  this  accomplishment.  Some  ladies 
have  appeared  to  think  it  un feminine  to  read  or  speak 
in  an  audible  manner,  affecting  a  low  and  lisping  toney 
probably  from  the  idea  that  this  is  an  indication  of  a  gen- 
tle and  delicate  spirit;  but  I  trust  you  have  all  too  much 
taste  and  good  sense,  not  to  feel  how  false  and  ridiculous 
are  such  notions  of  female  delicacy.  The  time  has  gone 
by,  when  it  was  necessary  for  a  female  to  seem  ignorant 
or  childish  in  order  to  be  interesting.  Women  are  now 
looked  upon  as  rational  beings,  endowed  with  faculties 
capable  of  improvement,  and  bound  in  duty  to  as- 
sume a  high  rank  in  the  scale  of  intelligence.  Even 
beauty  has  learned,  that  connected  with  ignorance  and 
folly,  she  must  give  precedence  to  the  plainest  features 
irradiated  with  intelligence  and  good  sense.  I  speak 
not  now  of  a  ball  or  a  fashionable  party,  where  ex- 
ternal appearance  chiefly  is  regarded,  but  of  the  great 
theatre  of  human  life,  where  character  developes  itself, 
and  where  all  find  their  own  proper  level,  intellect  and 
morals  being  the  graduating  scale. 

I  shall  close  this  lecture  by  a  quotation  from  an  au- 
thor,* who  has  done  much  for  the  education,  and  has 
ever  shown  himself  interested  in  the  improvement  of  our 
sex.  *  Elocution  is  not  sufficiently  attended  to,  in  the 
course  of  female  education.  I  know,  great  improvements 
have  been  made  of  late,  in  this  respect,  but  much  yet 
remains  to  be  done.  It  is  not  enough  that  a  young  lady 
should  be  taught  to  read  with  a  correct  pronunciation, 
and  emphasis,  and  without  any  palpable  fault.  She 
should  be  taught  to  enter  into  the  feelings  of  the  author; 
and  to  make  the  hearers  feel  as  if  he  was  really  address- 
ing them.  One  very  striking  fault  in  the  reading  of  ma- 
ny persons  is,  that  they  do  not  adapt  their  manner  to  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  composition,  but  always  read 
in  one  uniform  style.  Perhaps  there  are  some  reasons 
why  young  ladies  are  in  danger  of  doing  this  more  than 
the  other  sex ;  or  rather,  why  it  is  more  difficult,  in  their 
case,  to  remedy  this  defect.  Their  reading  is  confined 

*  Gallaudet. 


READING.  87 

to  the  fire-side,  and  to  the  domestic  circle ;  and  there 
seems  to  be,  therefore,  less  of  inducement  for  them  to  aim 
at  the  life,  and  variety,  and  force,  so  essential  in  public 
speaking.  Still,  these,  and  every  other  good  quality  of 
the  most  eloquent  delivery,  ought  to  hold  a  high  rank 
among  female  accomplishments.  I  cannot  understand, 
why  it  should  be  thought,  as  it  sometimes  is,  a  departure 
from  female  delicacy  to  read  in  a  promiscuous,  social  cir- 
cle, if  called  upon  to  do  so  from  any  peculiar  circumstan- 
ces; and  to  read,  too,  as  well  as  Gfarrick  himself  would 
have  done,  if  the  young  lady  possessed  the  power  of  do- 
ing it.  Why  may  she  not  do  this  with  as  much  genuine 
modesty,  and  with  as  much  desire  to  oblige  her  friends, 
and  with  as  little  ostentation,  as  to  sit  down,  in  the  same 
circle,  to  the  piano,  and  play  and  sing  in  the  style  of  the 
first  masters'?  If  to  do  the  former  is  making  too  much 
of  a  display  of  her  talents,  why  should  not  the  latter  be 
so  ?  Nothing  but  some  strange  freaks  of  fashion  have 
made  the  difference.  But,  at  any  rate,  amid  her  family 
and  friends,  to  how  many  otherwise  tedious,  or  useless, 
hours  of  life,  may  a  female  impart  both  delight  and  im- 
provement by  the  charm  of  reading  well.  If  a  wife,  she 
can  solace  many  a  season  of  a  husband's  weariness  or 
sickness.  If  a  mother,  what  an  advantage  to  her  off- 
spring, to  have  before  them,  as  they  are  growing  up,  a 
living  model,  in  the  person  of  one  whom  they  are  led  to 
reverence  and  love,  of  an  accomplishment  which  our 
schools,  and  academies,  and  colleges,  find  it  so  difficult 
to  impart.  This  latter  consideration,  in  my  view,  has 
immense  weight ;  for  our  habits  of  pronunciation,  speak- 
ing, and  reading,  are  first  formed  in  childhood,  and  in 
the  domestic  circle ;  and  being  once  formed,  it  is  a  task 
of  extreme  difficulty  to  alter  them/ 

It  has  been  observed  that  a  person  may  have  genius 
without  being  a  good  reader,  but  no  one  can  be  a  good 
reader  without  genius.  When  you  find  how  many  are 
the  requisites  for  this  accomplishment,  you  will  learn  not 
to  esteem  it  lightly,  or  as  a  thing  which  may  be  gained 
in  childhood,  but  one  towards  whose  perfection  all  the 
different  branches  of  knowledge  tend.  If  you  were 
sailed  upon  to  give  a  preference  either  to  reading  or 


OO  GRAMMAR. 

music,  I  hope  you  would  all  prefer  returning  to  your 
friends  perfected  in  the  former  rather  than  the  latter  ac- 
complishment ;  for  although  music  is  a  refined  and  in- 
tellectual enjoyment,  the  occasions  for  it  in  ordinary 
life,  are  far  less  frequent  than  for  reading  aloud.  In  all 
the  pursuits  of  youth  this  should  ever  be  the  main  object 
of  inquiry,  What  attainments  will  render  me  most  useful 
and  agreeable  to  others,  and  tend  most  to  my  own  eleva- 
tion and  happiness  ? 


LECTURE    IX. 

Grammar. 

IT  is  not  until  after  a  child  has  learned  to  use  nouns, 
verbs,  prepositions,  and  other  parts  of  speech,  that  he 
knows  them  as  such ;  in  other  words,  he  becomes  famil- 
iar with  language  before  he  learns  its  philosophy.  So  it 
is  with  much  of  our  knowledge ;  we  are  conversant  with 
the  subjects,  before  we  understand  their  natures. 

The  mechanic  becomes  familiar  with  the  ..se  of  the- pul- 
ley, wedge  and  inclined  plane,  and  is  able  to  perform  various 
operations  by  their  aid,  without  knowing  any  thing  of 
mechanical  philosophy.  We  exercise  our  various  mental 
faculties,  reason,  remember,  and  compare,  long  before 
we  are  able  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  these  operations. 

Language  was  not  formed  according  to  the  rules  of 
grammar,  but  grammar  was  made  to  conform  itself  to  those 
forms  of  language  which  had  previously  been  established. 
A  child  learns  to  speak  without  knowing  anything  of  the 
rules  of  grammar  ;  and  people  ignorant  of  the  principles 
and  rules  of  language,  are  often  able  to  write  with  toler- 
able accuracy.  Such  persons,  however,  feel  their  own 
deficiency  in  this  respect ;  they  know  that  they  are  contin- 
ually liable  to  errors.  A  mariner  might  chance  to  steer 
his  bark  aright  without  a  compass,  but  he  would  feel 
much  more  secure  if  provided  with  the  means  of  as- 
certaining the  correctness  of  his  course. 


tSftAMMAR,  89 

Man  perceiving  effects,  is  led  to  trace  them  to  their 
causes,  though  in  this  process  he  often  proceeds  by 
slow  degrees.  God  views  the  first  as 'first;  that  is, 
causes,  and  the  effects  following  them.  Human  na- 
ture must  be  satisfied  to  advance  from  the  more  im- 
perfect and  complex,  to  the  more  perfect  and  simple; 
for  in  general,  objects  are  first  familiar  to  us  as  complex. 
A  child  can  readily  understand  this  proposition, — the 
sun  shines  ;  but  it  requires  study  and  reflection  to  be 
able  to  analyze  it  into  an  article,  a  noun,  and  a  verb; 
to  separate  these  again  into  syllables,  the  syllables  into 
letters,  and  then  to  explain  the  difference  in  the  sounds 
and  powers  of  these  letters.  The  lowest  human  beings  in 
the  scale. of  knowledge,  (with  the  exception  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,)  have  some  kind  of  spoken  language.  Many 
savage  tribes  know  nothing  of  written  language.  In  our 
country  there  are,  however,  few  so  ignorant  as  not  to  know 
how  to  read  and  write ;  but  there  are  many  who  know 
nothing  of  grammar,  or  those  rules  and  principles  on 
which  their  own  language  is  founded  ;  and  there  are 
still  fewer  who  comprehend  those  broad  and  general 
principles  of  grammar,  which  are  common  to  all  lan- 
guages, and  make  up  the  science  of  universal  gram- 
mar. 

No  person  can  be  considered  as  having  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, who  has  not  studied,  at  least  one  language  besides 
his  own;  and  yet  there  are  pedantic  grammarians,  who, 
with  no  other  knowledge  than  that  gained  from  the 
study  of  the  English  language,  assume  to  understand 
the  principles  on  which  it  is  founded,  and  to  be  able  to 
give  rules  for  every  doubtful  case  in  parsing :  more 
knowledge  of  the  intricacies  of  language  would  teach 
such,  that  the  English  being  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
other  languages,  on  principles  common  to  them,  and  yet 
in  many  cases  essentially  varying  from  these  principles, 
necessarily  presents  many  irregularities;  instead,  there- 
fore, of  attempting  to  prove  all  cases  to  be  conformable 
to  rules,  we  must  often  cut  the  gordian  knot,  by  admitting 
a  case  to  be  anomalous,  or  sanctioned  only  by  cus- 
tom. 

8* 


90  GRAMMAR, 

The  study  of  languages,  then,  besides  affording  an  ex« 
cellent  discipline  for  the  mind,  and  presenting  new  and 
rich  sources  of  knowledge,  is  important  in  teaching  the 
principles  of  our  own  language.  But  all  cannot  enjoy 
the  opportunities  necessary  for  this  acquisition ;  many 
enter  this  institution  restricted  to  a  few  months,  during 
which  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  make  such  attain- 
ments as  will  be  most  important  in  after  life.  It  would 
be  absurd  for  a  person  to  attempt  to  lay  a  broad  founda- 
tion, knowing  that  he  should  never  be  able  to  erect  a  su- 
perstructure upon  it. 

A  young  lady  having  merely  received  the  rudiments 
of  an  English  education,  as  afforded  by  a  common 
school,  and  who  is  allowedd,  for  six  months  or  a  year, 
the  advantage  of  a  higher  school,  should  not  be  encour- 
aged to  attempt  more  than  she  can  accomplish  within 
the  allotted  period.  The  higher  branches  of  education, 
and  the  accomplishments  of  music,  drawing,  foe.,  should 
not  take  the  place  of  grammar,  geography,  arithmetic, 
and  history.  The  natural  sciences,  are  within  the  reach 
of  every  one,  who  can  count  the  stamens  of  a  flower,  can 
see  the  difference  between  quartz  and  mica,  or  can 
observe  the  different  properties  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 
In  these  sciences,  every  lecture  is  exhibiting  nature  in  a 
new  aspect,  and  storing  the  mind  with  facts  arid  observa- 
tions which  will  be  useful  and  interesting  in  every 
station  and  under  every  circumstance  of  life. 

English  grammar  is  becoming  a  very  common  study. 
It  is  now  almost  universally  taught  in  our  common 
schools,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  earliest,  as  well 
as  the  latest  pursuits  of  all  classes  of  students.  It 
has  its  simple  distinctions  which  can  be  understood  by 
the  child,  and  it  contains  subtleties  which  elude  the 
grasp  of  the  strongest  and  most  mature  intellect. 

In  the  former  and  less  improved  state  of  education,  a 
pupil  commencing  the  study  of  grammar,  was  required 
to  commit  to  memory  page  after  page  of  principles, 
rules  and  exceptions:  these  he  was  required  to  repeat 
before  commencing  the  important  process  of  parsing. 
In  some  cases,  teachers  continued  to  keep  their  pupils 


GRAMMAR.  91 

to  the  recitation  of  grammar  lessons,  concealing  their 
own  want  of  knowledge  of  the  science,  by  pretend* 
ing  that  it  was  necessary  to  understand  every  word 
of  their  book  before  they  could  begin  to  make  an 
application  of  its  principles  and  rules*  Other  teachers 
there  were,  who  really  believed  that  this  repeating  by 
rote  constituted  the  whole  mystery  of  the  science,  and 
doubted  not  but  in  hearing  their  pupils  recite,  they  were 
teaching  grammar  in  the  most  profitable  manner. 

Since  those  days  of  grammatical  darkness  and  error, 
books  have  been  prepared  on  new  principles  of  teaching, 
and  the  inductive  method  has  been  generally  adopt- 
ed.* Here  the  pupil  begins  at  once  (o  distinguish 
a  sentence  into  its  different  parts.  Rules  are  not  pre- 
•serited  until  the  mind  is  led  to  perceive  their  applica- 
tion. There  is,  however,  still  a  tendency  to  a  great  fault 
in  both  the  teaching  and  learning  of  grammar;  this  is, 
to  make  parsing  the  ultimate  object,  instead  of  the 
application  of  grammatical  rules  to  writing  and  con- 
versation. 

We  do  not  often  hear  people  say  I  is,  you  am,  fyc. 
But  ladies  who  claim  to  be  well  educated  not  unfre- 
quently  say  *  I  will  lay  down,'  using  the  word  lay,  which 
is  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  to  lie,  as  if  it  were  the  future. 
We  often  hear  adjectives  improperly  used  as  adverbs,  as 
f  she  looks  beautiful,'  instead  of  beautifully.  Will  is  used 
for  shall,  as  *  /  will  not  have  time  ; '  the  improper  use  of 
these  two  auxiliaries  is  well  illustrated  in  the  anecdote 
of  the  foreigner,  who  falling  into  a  river,  piteously 
exclaimed,  'I will  drown,  nobody  shall  help  me.'  That 
foreigners  should  thus  mistake  the  power  of  two  words 
so  analogous  in  many  respects,  is  not  strange;  but  those 

*  No  elementary  work  has  probably  been  of  greater  general 
utility  than  i  Greenleafs  Grammar  Simplified.'  The  teacher  who 
is  ignorant,  of  the  science,  cannot  but  be  made  acquainted  with  it 
by  the  simple  and  easy  manner  in  which  parsing,  or  the  analyti- 
cal part  of  grammar  is  taught.  A  smaller  work  on  the  same 
principles  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Greenleaf,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  having  it  afforded  at  so  low  a  rate  as  may  enable  even  the 
poorest  scholar  of  a  common  school  to  possess  a  copy.  Brown's 
and  Kirkham's  grammars  are  valuable  for  more  .advanced  pupils. 


92  GRAMMAR. 

who  study  the  English  grammar  should  apply  in  practice 
their  knowledge,  that  shall  used  in  the  first  person, 
singular,  simply  foretels,  while  will,  in  the  same  person 
and  number,  implies  a  resolution  or  determination. 

It  is  necessary  then  that  you  should  bear  in  mind 
that  parsing,  and  learning  rules,  are  mechanical  and 
useless,  unless  you  make  the  application  of  these 
exercises,  to  writing  and  conversation.  The  slightest 
offence  against  grammatical  accuracy  should  be  avoided 
by  people  of  education,  and  yet  such  offences  are  much 
more  common  than  you  may  at  first  imagine.  The 
substituting  which  for  who,  the  use  of  the  perfect  for 
the  imperfect  tense]  or  the  imperfect  for  the  pluper- 
fect 9  the  improper  use  of  the  potential  mode,  &,c.  give 
rise  to  errors,  which  though  not  of  the  grossest  kind, 
are  yet  quickly  perceived  by  a  philologist.  Perhaps 
I  have  here  used  a  term  not  familiar  to  all  of  you ;  I  will 
therefore  observe  that  philology  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  phileo,  I  love,  and  logos,  a  word,  and  signifies  a 
love  for,  or  a  knowledge  of  words.  According  to  the 
present  acceptation  of  the  term,  philology  implies  a  criti- 
cal knowledge  of  language,  considered  both  rhetorically 
and  gramctically.  To  be  a  philologist  requires  a  higher 
effort  of  mind,  a  more  enlarged  view  of  language  than  to 
be  a  grammarian.  But  in  order  to  be  a  grammarian,  it 
is  not  sufficient  that  you  should  be  able  to  parse 
sentences  in  that  kind  of  parrot-like  manner  which 
is  often  acquired  ;  you  must  be  able  to  perceive  the 
meaning  of  an  author,  the  connexion  between  the  words 
of  a  sentence,  however  distant,  and  to  supply  words 
in  elliptical  cases.  Some  of  the  English  poets  are  pecu- 
liar, for  their  great  use  of  ellipsis,  some  especially,  in 
the  expression  of  sudden  passion,  leaving  not  one  word 
merely,  but  several,  to  be  supplied  by  the  reader. 

A  fashion  has  too  much  prevailed  among  you  of  consid- 
ering English  grammar  as  a  study  only  proper  for  young- 
er pupils,  and  some  have  exhibited  a  degree  of  impa- 
tince  at  being  occasionally  called  upon  to  devote  some 
time  to  the  review  of  this  science.  But  no  young  lady 
need  fear  that  grammar  can  present  to  her  nothing  new, 
or  that  one  hour  in  a  week  devoted  to  the  analysis  of 


GRAMMAR.  93 

English  poetry,  will  not  afford  her  an  opportunity  for 
intellectual  exertion. 

You  may  say, '  If  grammar  requires  deep  thought,  why 
are  children  so  early  put  to  the  study  of  it? '  We  would 
answer,  that  there  are  simple  truths  in  this  science  which 
children  can  soon  comprehend,  as  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  parts  of  speech  ;  they  can  readily  understand 
the  nature  of  a  noun,  and  this  knowledge  gives  them 
many  new  ideas.  We  tell  them  that  every  tiling  in  ex- 
istence is  a  noun,  all  that  they  can  see,  hear,  touch, 
smell,  or  taste,  are  nouns;  at  first,  it  might  seem  to  them 
that  no  other  words  would  be  necessary  but  the  names  of 
these  things  ;  but  of  the  names  of  real  objects  in  nature, 
how  small  a  part  of  our  vocabulary  of  words  consists. 
The  child  soon  learns  that  we  must  have  words  to  ex* 
press  actions  done  to,  or  done  by  these  things  which  we 
call  nouns,  and  thus  the  mind  can  readily  comprehend 
that  there  may  be  words  which  do  riot  stand  for  things, 
but  relate  to  their  manner  of  acting,  or  their  state  of  ex- 
istence, and  that  these  words  are  called  verbs.  It  is  easy 
also  for  a  child  to  understand  that  these  things  called 
nouns  have  different  qualities ;  as  fire  is  hot,  snow  is 
white;  that  one  person  is  good,  and  another  bad,  and 
that  the  words  denoting  these  qualities  are  called  adjec- 
tives, which  means  words  added  to  nouns.  Thus  you 
observe  the  young  mind,  by  the  study  of  grammar,  is  led 
to  form  an  idea  of  things  or  material  objects,  of  actions 
or  modes  of  existence,  and  of  qualities  which  do  not  ex- 
ist of  themselves  but  are  inseparable  from  the  things  in 
which  they  are  found.  Now  all  this  is  philosophy,  but  it 
may  be  easily  comprehended  by  a  child  old  enough  to 
understand  the  difference  between  two  and  four. 

Thus  simple  are  the  elements  of  grammar.  But  it 
contains  divisions  and  subdivisions,  exceptions  to  general 
rules,  and  exceptions  differently  modified ;  so  that,  as  be- 
fore remarked,  while  children  can  understand  its  ele- 
ments, the  philosopher  is  lost  in  its  intricacies.  While 
employed  in  this  study,  you  are  giving  exercise  to  your 
mental  powers,  invigorating  them  for  new  labors,  and  at 
the  same  time  are  gaining  knowledge,  which  will  be 
called  into  use  with  every  sentence  you  speak  or  write. 


94  GRAMMAR. 

It  is  very  important  that  those  who  are  preparing  them- 
selves for  teachers,  should  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  English  grammar.  In  correcting  the  inaccuracies  in 
spoken  and  written  language,  a  teacher  should  not  only 
be  able  to  point  out  defects,  but  the  rules  which  are  vio- 
lated. 

In  concluding  my  remarks  upon  a  branch  of  educa- 
tion so  important,  and  yet,  through  inattention  and  care- 
lessness, so  often  pursued  with  little  advantage,  let  me 
admonish  you  against  that  mental  indolence  which  fre- 
quently defeats  the  efforts  of  parents  and  teachers. 
Knowledge  cannot,  like  houses  and  lands,  be  purchased 
by  money.  All  that  your  parents  or  teachers  can  do, 
is  to  place  within  your  reach  the  instruments  of  ac- 
quiring it ;  if  you  refuse  to  use  them,  if  your  minds  are 
not  active,  to  observe,  compare,  and  remember,  it  will  be 
in  vain  that  you  are  placed  in  situations  where  facilities 
for. improvement  are  offered.  Books  and  lectures  are  of 
no  avail  to  that  mind  which  is  too  inert  to  rouse  itself  into 
action,  and  seize  the  truths  which  are  exhibited.  There 
is  in  the  mind  a  tendency  to  sloth,  but  it  also  con- 
tains principles  which  counteract  this  love  of  ease. 
Of  these  are  a  desire  for  knowledge,  an  ambition 
to  excel,  and  in  many  persons  the  higher  moral  mo- 
tive of  cultivating  the  talents  committed  to  their  charge, 
from  a  sense  of  duty  to  God.  But  these  incitements  to 
action  are  sometimes  feeble  ;  how  often  arc  the  minds 
of  some  pupils  slumbering  in  a  torpid  inactivity,  while 
others  are  exerting  all  the  energies  of  their  faculties  to 
impart  instruction  to  them ;  how  often  is  the  listless  eye 
fixed  in  vacancy  of  thought  upon  some  trifling  object,  or 
the  mind  wandering  on  some  past  pleasure,  or  anticipat- 
ing some  future  enjoyment,  while  their  teachers,  with  in- 
tense anxiety  to  discharge  their  high  responsibilities,  are 
exerting  all  their  powers  to  explain  something  which  they 
feared  might  not  be  understood,  or  to  communicate  such 
knowledge  as  the  pupil  will  need  in  her  future  progress  in 
life.  Would  not  a  spectator,  ignorant  of  the  truth,  sup- 
pose that  the  teacher,  and  not  themselves,  was  to  be  the 
gainer  by  their  attention  ? 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES.  95 

I  have  read  of  a  certain  professor,*  who  always  lec- 
tured to  one  particular  student,  regulating  his  dis- 
courses by  his  appearance :  when  he  looked  as  if  he 
did  not  comprehend  the  subject,  the  professor  per- 
ceived that  his  explanation  had  not  been  clear,  and 
endeavored  to  illustrate  his  ideas  more  fully ;  when 
the  student's  countenance  was  illumined  with  the  glow 
of  intelligence,  the  professor  knew  that  he  was  under- 
stood, and  that  his  instructions  had  taken  effect.  How 
many  different  expressions  do  I  at  this  moment  behold 
before  me  !  How  many  youthful  countenances,  lighted 
up  by  the  spirit  within,  animate  me  in  the  discharge  of 
my  duties  ! 

Would  that  all  of  you  could  realize  the  importance  of 
this  present  season  of  preparation  for  your  future  lives. 
The  scriptures  point  out  two  classes  of  people,  the  wise 
and  the  foolish.  Though  intellectual  gifts  are  not  al- 
ways most  conspicuous  in  the  most  virtuous,  it  is  gener- 
ally the  case  that  the  latter  more  assiduously  seek  to 
make  a  suitable  improvement  of  advantages  afforded 
them.  In  every  large  collection  of  human  beings  assem- 
bled for  the  purpose  of  instruction,  we  are  struck  by  con- 
trasts ;  some  seek  to  know  the  truth  and  to  learn  their 
duty,  while  others,  alas,  too  many,  appear  forgetful  of 
the  momentous  interests  which  hang  upon  the  present 
moment.  Have  we  not  reason  to  believe  that  these 
will  at  last  be  found  among  those  to  whom  it  will  be 
said,  '  Depart  from  me ;  ye  have  chosen  your  own 
ways,  ye  have  loved  pleasure  rather  than  wisdom/ 


LECTURE  X. 

Ancient  Languages. 

IN  proceeding  to  consider  the  study  of  the  ancient 
languages,  I  would  wish  you  to  understand  that  I  do  not 
recommend  them,  except  where  circumstances  permit  a 

*  Professor  Jardine,  of  Edinburgh. 


96  ANCIENT   LANGUAGES. 

liberal  course  of  education.  You  will  recollect  the  re- 
marks on  this  subject  in  our  last  lecture,  and  will  not 
therefore  be  likely  to  imbibe  the  mistaken  idea,  that  all 
young  ladies  are  called  upon  to  become  Latin  and  Greek 
scholars,  or  even  to  attempt  acquiring  the  rudiments  of 
any  other  language  than  their  own. 

It  is  the  pride  of  this  institution,  that  the  daughter  of 
the  most  humble  mechanics  and  farmers,  and  of  the  wealth- 
iest and  most  powerful  of  our  citizens,  here  meet  on 
terms  of  equality,  except  as  virtue  and  talents  make  a 
distinction.  Our  country  is  probably  the  only  one  in  the 
world  which  exhibits  such  a  scene.  In  England,  the 
nobility  would  feel  it  a  degradation  to  have  their  daugh- 
ters educated  in  common  with  the  untitled.  The  gentry 
who  may  not  aspire  to  mingle  with  the  nobility,  still  re- 
coil from  plebeian  contamination.  In  the  English  univer- 
sities, it  is  true,  all  may  find  admittance  who  are  suitably 
qualified  for  entrance,  but  the  sons  of  the  nobility  have 
their  peculiar  privileges.  The  commoners  are  not  per- 
mitted to  eat  with  them,  and  by  this  and  various  other 
distinctions  are  constantly  reminded  of  their  own  infe- 
riority. 

Unfortunate  state  of  things,  when  the  one  class,  be- 
ing led  to  feel  that  rank  alone  can  give  elevation,  are 
thus  deprived  of  an  important  stimulus  to  mental  effort, 
and  the  other,  depressed  by  the  abjectness  of  their 
situation,  can  scarcely  hope,  by  the  greatest  efforts,  to 
rise  sbove  the  sphere  in  which  they  find  themselves 
placed ! 

In  our  country,  in  female  as  well  as  male  institutions, 
these  things  are  different.  We  know  of  no  hereditary 
claims  to  respect,  which  can  set  aside  the  superior  claims 
of  merit ;  and  if  the  attempt  is  made  to  render  any 
school  in  our  country  of  an  exclusive  character,  it  must, 
from  the  very  genius  of  our  government,  and  the  nature 
of  our  institutions,  prove  as  abortive  as  it  is  ridicu- 
lous. 

Some  may  indeed,  from  a  desire  of  this  exdusiveness , 
pay  such  extravagant  demands  for  the  education  of  their 
daughters  as  cannot  be  afforded  by  persons  of  moderate 
fortunes  ;  but  the  children  thus  educated  will  be  obliged 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES. 


97 


when  they  come  forth  into  the  world,  to  run  the  race  of 
life  by  the  side  of  those,  who,  having  been  inured  to 
competition,  are  strengthened  and  prepared  for  the  con- 
test. When  distanced  in  this  race,  and  left  to  see  their 
despised  inferiors  far  before  them,  it  will  but  add  to  their 
chagrin,  that  they  had  once  been  flattered  with  the  idea 
of  possessing  peculiar  advantages. 

I  have  perhaps  digressed  too  far  from  the  subject  of  this 
lecture,  but  it  has  been  to  show  you  that  although  a  dif- 
ferent course  of  study  may  be  recommended  to  pupils 
under  different  circumstances,  we  hold  to  principles 
congenial  with  the  spirit  of  our  republican  government. 

Mankind  must  act  according  to  existing  circumstances, 
and  prospects  which  are  at  the  time  being  presented.  In 
accordance  with  these  views,  I  must  advise  you  to  such 
studies  and  pursuits  as  now  seem  most  likely  to  be  use- 
ful to  you  in  after  life.  And  yet  we  well  know  that 
appearances  may  be  illusory.  Many  a  piano  and  harp 
have  been  destined  to  an  auction  sale,  while  their  accom- 
plished mistresses  have  been  forced  to  exchange  elegant 
houses  and  furniture  for  the  coarsest  accommodations. 
On  the  other  hand  those  who  never  aspired  to  any  ac- 
complishments, whose  minds  have  been  only  adorned  with 
plain  good  sense;  and  this  perhaps  little  cultivated,  are 
by  an  unexpected  combination  of  circumstances,  brought 
forward  into  high  and  conspicuous  stations.  But  notwith- 
standing the  possibility  of  these  reverses,  the  present  sta- 
tion and  the  pecuniary  means  of  the  parent  must  regulate 
the  education  of  the  child. 

When  the  situation  of  a  parent  allows  the  opportunity 
of  a  liberal  course  of  study,  I  consider  that  the  languages 
should  form  the  basis  of  education ;  that  girls  as  well  as 
boys  should  be  put  to  .the  study  of  Latin  as  soon  as  they 
are  able  to  read  intelligibly.*  A  child  of  six  or  seven 

*  I  am  aware  that  this  is  a  controverted  point ;  but  I  believe 
that  persons  engaged  in  education  are  becoming  more  confirmed 
in  their  opinions,  in  favor  of  giving  to  young  females  some  know- 
ledge of  the  ancient  languages.  Mr.  Emerson's  lecture  on  Fe- 
male Education,  delivered  before  the  American  Institute  of  In- 
struction, contains  some  excellent  and  judicious  remarks  on  thk 
subject. 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES. 

years  of  age  can  learn  the  conjugations  of  verbs,  the  de- 
clensions of  nouns,  pronouns  and  adjectives.  The 
memory  at  this  age  is  active  and  retentive,  and  if  the 
other  mental  powers  are  at  the  same  time  cultivated, 
there  will  be  no  danger  of  their  suffering  by  the  efforts 
of  this. 

The  exercise  of  translating  from  one  language  to 
another,  calls  up  the  powers  of  comparison  and  abstrac- 
tion, quickens  the  imagination,  matures  the  judgment, 
and  gives  enlarged  views  of  the  general  principles  of 
language. 

In  addition  to  the  utility  of  the  study  of  Latin  in  the 
discipline  of  the  mind,  we  must  count  among  one  of  its 
important  advantages,  the  facilities  which  it  gives  for  the 
attainment  of  those  modern  languages  which  are  deriv- 
ed from  it.  Our  own  language,  has  borrowed  much  from 
the  Latin.  The  Saxon  was  the  language  of  England 
when  that  country  was  subdued  by  the  Romans  under 
Julius  Caesar.  Like  all  conquered  nations  the  English 
gradually  suffered  a  change  in  their  language,  and  thus 
the  language  of  the  Romans  became  incorporated  with 
that  of  the  Saxons;  and  in  process  of  time,  the  Danish 
and  Norman  conquests  effected  still  greater  changes. 

The  Latin  language,  like  the  character  of  the  people 
by  whom  it  was  spoken,  is  forcible  and  majestic.  Among 
its  most  distinguished  prose  writers  were  Cicero,  Tacitus, 
Sallust,  Livy  and  Caesar;  its  most  celebrated  poets  were 
Horace,  Ovid  and  Virgil.  This  language  is  still  used 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  their  public  prayers,  and  is 
spoken  familiary  by  the  learned  of  Europe,  particularly 
in  Germany. 

An  elegant  writer,*  observes,  '  there  is  not  a  single 
language  of  modern  Europe,  in  which  literature  has 
made  any  considerable  advances,  which  is  not  directly  of 
Roman  origin,  or  has  not  incorporated  into  its  very 
structure  many  of  the  idioms  and  peculiarities  of  the 
ancient  tongues.  The  English  language  affords  strong 
illustration  of  the  truth  of  this  remark.  It  abounds 
with  words  and  meanings  drawn  from  classical  sources. 

*  Judge  Story. 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES.  99 

Innumerable  phrases  retain  the  symmetry  of  their 
ancient  dress.  Innumerable  expressions  have  received 
their  vivid  tints  from  the  beautiful  dyes  of  Roman  and 
Grecian  roots.' 

The  same  writer,  remarking  upon  the  rich  treasures 
of  ancient  literature,  and  the  idea  that  these  can  be 
conveyed  to  the  mind  through  the  medium  of  transla- 
tions, says,  '  these  may  be  read  in  our  vernacular  tongue 
— aye,  as  one  remembers  the  face  of  a  dear  friend, 
by  gathering  up  the  broken  fragments  of  his  image, 
— as  one  listens  to  the  tale  of  a  dream  well  told, — as 
one  catches  the  wave  of  the  ocean  in  the  ripple  of  a 
rivulet, — as  one  sees  the  blaze  of  noon  in  the  first  glim- 
mer of  the  twilight.' 

It  is  not  however  to  be  expected  that  among  the 
many  pursuits  to  which  the  female  mind  must  be  direct- 
ed, and  with  the  comparatively  short  period  which  is 
allowed  them  for  education,  that  many  young  ladies  will 
acquire  that  facility  in  reading  Latin  which  is  necessary 
to  the  enjoyment  of  its  classical  literature.  But  a  know- 
ledge of  the  principles  on  which  this  noble  language  is 
constructed,  and  a  limited  acquaintance  with  its  beauties 
are  invaluable. 

Why  should  these  be  denied  to  us  merely  because  we 
are  women?  I  know  it  has  been  customary  among 
many  to  ridicule  the  idea  of  females  pursuing  what 
are  called  masculine  studies.  The  excellent  and  wise 
Hannah  More  was  so  intimidated  by  this,  that  in  her 
Coelebs  she  makes  her  heroine  dread  the  discovery  of 
her  studying  Latin,  as  if  it  were  a  crime,  and  over- 
whelms her  with  blushes  and  confusion  when  the  se- 
cret is  revealed. 

When  such  occurrences  shall  no  longer  be  rare,  then 
will  they  cease  to  excite  astonishment,  and  females  may 
be  allowed  to  read  Virgil,  or  even.  Homer,  as  undisturb- 
edly as  if  they  were  working  lace  or  embroidering 
muslin. 

In  some  essays  on  female  education  ascribed  to  her 
ladyship  the  Countess  of  Carlisle,  I  find  the  following 
remarks :  '  As  for  Homer  and  Virgil,  I  fancy  you  must 
be  content  to  taste  these  as  pure  as  the  labors  of  ihe 


100  ANCIENT    LANGUAGES. 

learned  afford  them ;  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues 
forming  no  part  in  the  polite  system  of  female  education 
at  present,  nor  certainly  ever  can  in  the  useful.'  It  is 
probable  that  had  her  ladyship  been  permitted  to  test 
the  utility  of  these  studies  by  experience,  she  might  have 
judged  differently  ;  she  would  probably  have  gained  from 
them  a  better  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  English 
sentences  than  is  exhibited  in  the  preceding  quotation, 
some  parts  of  which  it  would  certainly  puzzle  a  gramma- 
rian to  parse  according  to  any  rules  of  the  English  gram- 
mar. It  is  a  little  surprising  that  she  should  have  deci- 
ded so  positively  on  this  subject,  especially  as  she  had 
observed  in  a  preceding  sentence,  that  *  it  is  a  property 
of  ignorance  to  esteem  nothing  valuable  that  it  does  not 
comprehend.' 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  of  the  Latin  language, 
it  may  be  profitable  to  those  of  you,  who  have  recently 
commenced  in  this  study,  to  receive  a  few  general  direc- 
tions for  translating  and  parsing.* 

In  translating  Latin  into  English, 

1.  Find  what  is  the  nominative  case  or  subject  of  the  verb. 

&  Find  the  words  which  belong  to  the  noun  or  subject  of  the 
sentence  ;  these  words  are  sometimes  adjectives,  which  in  English 
are  usually  placed  before  the  noun  ;  but  in  Latin  are  often  placed 
after,  and  sometimes  separated  by  many  intervening  words  from 
the  noun  to  which  they  belong.  It  is  the  agreement  of  adjectives 
to  their  nouns,  in  number,  gender  and  case,  which  enables  us  to 
ascertain  to  which  of  the  nouns  in  a  sentence  they  belong.  It 
maybe  observed,  as  there  are  no  words  in  Latin  which  answer  to 
our  articles  a  and  the,.'m  translating  we  add  these  articles  ac- 
cording to  our  understanding  of  the  sense ;.  thus,  the  word  rex 
may  be  read  either  a  king  or  the  king.  This  want  of  the  article 
in,  Latin  is  considered  a  defect,  as  it  often  makes  the  sense  ap- 
pear doubtful. 

3.  Besides   the  adjectives  which  are  connected  with  the  noun 
there    may  be  also  a  noun  in  the  genitive  case  which,  depend- 
ing on  the  former  noun,  should  be  construed  immediately  after  it. 

4.  A  participle  may   belong  to  a  noun,  and  require  to  be  con- 
strued before  the  verb. 

5.  The  verb  is  a  very  important  word  in  a  sentence.     When  a 
noun  is  translated,  the  verb   to  which  it  is  subject  naturally  be- 
comes a  subject  of  thought;  arid  although   we  often  bring  in 

*  Cleveland's  First  Lessons  in  the  Latin  Grammar  is  an  excellent  work  for  be- 
ginnera  ;  after  this,  the  Liber  Primus  and  Latin  Reader  may  follow.  The  custom 
of  commencing  the  reading  of  Latin  with  the  poets,  is  not  recommended. 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES.  101 

many  other  words  before  the  verb,  it  will  be  more  easy  to 
arrange  those  words  in  proper  order,  when  we  know  what  the 
verb  is;  therefore  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  best  to  nscertain  imme- 
diately after  translating  the  noun,  to  what  verb  it  is  nominative. 

6.  If  the   verb  is  active,  it   will  naturally  be  followed  by  a 
noun  in  the   accusative  case,  but  this  noun  may  not  be   placed 
directly  after  the  verb  as  in  English,  but  if  the  sentence  be  long, 
the  accusative  case  may  be  at  some  distance  from  the  verb. 

7.  After  a  preposition,  it  is  necessary  to  look  for  a  noun  either 
in  the  accusative  or  ablative  case. 

8.  As   the  Latin  language  is  very  concise  and  elliptical,  there 
are  often   many  words  to  be   supplied  in  order  to  complete  the 
sense  when  translated  into  English. 

The  rules  I  have  now  given  for  translating  may  be  remember- 
ed by  you,  because  they  are  few  and  very  general,  i  will  tres- 
pass on  your  patience  by  adding  a  few  directions  for  parsing 
Latin. 

1.  You  know  that  Rule  I.   (Adams'  Latin  Grammar,)  teach- 
es that  the  adjective  must  agree  with  its  substantive  in  several 
particulars,  as  case,  number  and  gender.     In  order  to  ascertain 
these  particulars,  you  must  find  to  what  declension  the  adjective 
belongs ;  then,  by  declining  it  according  to  the  rule  for  the  de- 
clension of  adjectives,  (which  you  can  find  by  referring  to  your 
grammars,  if  it  is  not  in  your  memories,)  you  will  come  to  the 
termination  similar  to  the  word  before  you  ;  thus  you  will  be  able 
to  tell  the  case,  number  and  gender  of  your  adjective.     And  as 
for  the  noun  to  which  it  belongs,  when   you  find  one    of  the 
same  case,  number  and  gender,  you  may  safely  conclude  they  go 
together. 

2.  Whon  you  parse  a  noun,  you  must  first  find  of  what  declen- 
sion  it   is ;  then  you  may,  by  varying  it  according  to  that  de- 
clension, ascertain  its  number  and   case.    The   gender  will  de- 
pend in  some  degree  upon  the  declension  which  to  the  noun  be- 
longs;  for  instance  those  of  the  first  declension,  are  feminine  ; 
those  of  the  second  declension  which  end  in  us,  are    mascu- 
line ;  those  which  end  in  um  are  neuter.     There   are  a  few  ex- 
ceptions to  these  general  rules,  but  in  learning  any  science  it 
is  best  to  get  clear  ideas  of  the  general  rules,  and  learn  the  ex- 
ceptions ;  afterwards,  for  it  is  usually  the  case  that  in  attempting 
to  learn   everything  at  once,  the  ideas   become  confused,  and 
nothing  is  clearly  understood. 

3.  If  the  noun   which  you  are  parsing  be  in  the  nominative 
case,  you  must  find  the  verb  it  governs;  if  it  is  in  the  genitive,  it 
will  most  generally  be  governed  by  some  other  noun ;  if  it  is  in  the 
dative,  it  will  be  governed  by  some  adjective  or  verb ;  if  in  the  ac- 
cusative, it  will  be  governed  by  an  '•'  tive  verb  or  preposition,  or 
placed  before  the  infinitive  mode;  if  in  the  vocative,  it  will  stand 
unconnected  with  other   words,  or  have  an  interjection  joined 
with  it;  if  in  the  ablative,  it  will  be  governed  by  a  preposition, 
depend  on  circumstances  of  time,  manner,  &c.,  or  be  connected 
with  a  participle. 

9* 


TO&  ANCIENT    LANGl/AGES. 

You  are  not  to  expect  in  this  sketch  all  the  important  rules 
for  parsing;  you  are  here  merely  shown  a  mariner  of  generaliz- 
ing ;  each  one  should,  however,  follow  that  mode  of  condensing- 
rules  and  principles  which  most  accords  with  the  laws  and  opera- 
tions of  her  own  mind.  This  process  should  be  performed  in 
every  study  you  pursue  ;  when  you  have  done  this,  and  not  till 
then,  you  may  consider  that  the  knowledge  communicated  to  you 
has  become  truly  your  own. 

In  the  study  of  the  Latin  or  any  other  language,  you  may  feel 
encouraged  by  the  consideration  that  every  step  you  advance  is 
rendering  the  next  m^re  easy,  and  especially  by  the  thought  that 
when  your  mind  has  once  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  general 
principles  of  language,  you  will  find  the  acquisition  of  new 
tongues  can  be  made  with  great  facility.  After  learning  one 
foreign  language  you  can  probably  learn  two  more  with  less 
labor,  fn  possession  of  three  languages,  you  could  probably  ac- 
quire six  in  less  time  than  the  first — and  so  on  in  a  compound  ratio. 
This  may  seem  extravagantj  but  the  testimony  of  those  who  have 
been  distinguished  for  their  extensive  acquaintance  with  lan- 
guages goes  to  confirm  the  opinion. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  give  some  general  rules  for  Quantity, 
Accent,  and  Latin  verse* 

You  will  remember  that  Quantity  is  the  space  of  time  taken  up 
in  pronouncing  a  syllable.  Accent  is  the  tone  of  voice  with 
which  a  syllable  is  pronounced. 

Rules  for  Quantity. 

Syllables  with  respect  to  their  quantity  are  either  long  or 
short.  A  long  syllable  requires  double  the  time  of  a  short  one  in 
pronouncing.  Some  syllables  are  commen ;  that  is,  sometimes 
long  and  sometimes  short. 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  short,  as  meus. 

2.  A  vowel  before  two  consonants,  or  before  a  double  consonant 
is  long,  (by  position,  as  it  is  called)  as  drma  axis. 

3.  A  vowel  before  a  mute  and  liquid  is  common,  (that  is  some- 
times long  and  sometimes  short)  as  volucris,  tcnebrce. 

4.  A  contracted  syllable  is  long,  as  nil  for  nihil. 

5.  A  diphthong  is  always  long,  except  ih&t  prae  in  composition 
before  a  vowel  is  usually  short,  as  praeire. 

Final  Syllables, 

A  in  the  end  of  words  declined  by  cases,  is  short,  as  musa.  An 
exception  to  this  is,  that  the  ablative  of  the  first  declension  is 
long,  as  musd.  E,  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  short,  as  natf.  (Excep- 
tions must  be  m^de  of  monosyllables  and  nouns  of  the  first  and  fifth 
declensions).  /,  final,  is  long  with  few  exceptions.  O.  final,  is 
common.  U,  final,  is  long;  Y,  final,  is  short,  nsfructu,  moly.  As, 
es  and  os  in  the  end  of  a  word  are  long,  as  mas,  quits. 

*  Every  English  as  well  as  Latin  scholar  should  be  acquainted  with  those  rutes, 
M  on  these  chiefly  depend  English  pronunciation  and  verification. 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES.  103 

Rules  for  Accent. 

Every  monosyllable  is  accented,  Ex. — Tu.  In  words  of  two 
Syllables  the  first  is  accented,  Ex.  musa.  In  polysyllables  the 
accent  is  on  the  penultimate,  if  it  is  a  long  syllable ;  but  if  the 
penultimate  be  a  short  syllable,  the  accent  must  then  be  placed 
on  the  ante-penultimate. 

You  will  observe  that  ultimate,  means  last ;  penultimate,  last 
but  one  ;  ante-penultimate,  last  but  two. 

There  are  three  accents,  distinguished  by  their  different 
sounds ;  JJcute,  or  sharp  accent,  raises  the  voice  in  pronuncia- 
tion, as  in  proferj  (proffer)  Grave,  or  bass  accent,  depresses  the 
voice  or  keeps  it  in  its  natural  tone  as  doclb  (learned).  This 
accent  probably  belongs  to  all  syllables  which  have  no  other. 
Circumflex  accent  first  raises  and  then  sinks  the  voice,  on  the 
same  syllable,  and  is  therefore  only  placed  on  long  syllables,  as 
amdre  (to  love). 

Of  Verse. 

A  verse  is  a  certain  number  of  long  and  short  syllables  dispos- 
ed according  to  rule.  It  is  so  called  from  the  Latin  verb  verto 
(to  turn),  for  when  the  number  of  syllables  requisite  is  com- 
pleted, we  always  turn  back  to  the  beginning  of  a  new  line. 
The  parts  into  which  we  divide  a  verse,  to  see  if  the  number  of 
syllables  is  correct,  are  called  feet. 

Poetic  Feet. 

Poetic  feet  are  of  either  two,  three,  or  four  syllables.  When  a 
single  syllable  is  taken  by  itself,  it  is  called  Ccesura,  which  is 
commonly  a  long  syllable. 

Feet  of  two  Syllables. 

Spondeus  consists  of  two  long  syllables,  as  dmnes.  Pyrrhichius 
consists  of  two  short  syllables,  as  deus.  Iambus  consists  of  one 
short  and  one  long  syllable,  as  amans.  Trochaeus  consists  of  one 
long  and  one  short  syllable,  as  servus. 

Feet  of  three  Syllables. 

Dactylus  consists  of  one  long  and  two  short  syllables,  as  scrl- 
bSre.  Anapaestus  consists  of  one  long  and  two  short  syllables,  as 
jtiet&s.  Amphimacer  consists  of  a  long;,  a  short,  and  a  long  sylla- 
ble, as  charltds.  Tribrachys  consists  of  three  short  syllables,  as 
dom/tnus. 

Scanning. 

The  measure  of  verse,  or  the  resolving  it  into  the  several  feet 
of  which  it  is  composed,  is  called  scanning. 

Hexameter. 

The  hexameter,  or*  Heroic  verse,  consists  of  six  feet;  of  thesef 
the  fifth  is  a  dactyle,  and  the  sixth  a  spondee ;  all  the  rest  may  be 


104  ANCIENT    LANGUAGES. 

either  dactyles  or  spondees.  A  regular  hexameter  verso  cannot 
have  more  than  seventeen  syllables,  or  fewrr  than  thirteen. 
Sometimes  a  spondee  is  found  in  the  fifth  place ;  it  is  then  called 
spondaic  verse  ;  it  is  used  when  anything  grave,  sic  w,  sad  or  large 
is  expressed.  It  commonly  has  a  dactyle  in  the  fourth  place,  and 
a  word  of  four  syllables  at  the  end. 

Sometimes  there  remains  a  supe<fl  ious  syllable  at  the  end. 
But  this  syllable  must  either  terminate  in  a  vowel,  or  in  a  vowel 
with  the  consonant  m  af  er  it,  so  as  to  be  joined  with  the  follow- 
ing verse,  which  in  the  present  case  must  always  begin  with  a 
vowel. 

The  Casura  is,  when,  after  a  foot  is  completed,  there  remains 
a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  word  to  begin  a  new  foot.  The  Caes- 
ura is  variously  named,  according  to  the  different  parts  of  the 
hexameter  verse  in  which  it  is  found.  The  most  common  and 
beautiful  Caesura  is  when  it  rails  upon  the  fifth  half  foot,  or  the 
syllable  after  the  second  foot;  this  is  called  the  Penthemim. 
When  the  Caesura  falls  on  a  syllable  naturally  short,  it  renders 
it  long.  The  chief  melody  of  a  hexameter  verse  in  a  great 
measure  depends  upon  .the  proper  disposition  of  the  Caesura. 

„  Figures  in  Scanning. 

Synalcepha,  is  the  cutting  oiF  a  vowel  or  a  diphthong,  when  the 
next  word  begins  with  a  vowel ;  it  is  sometimes  neglected,  and 
seldom  takes  place  in  the  interjections,  &c.  Long  vowels  and 
diphthongs  when  not  cut  off  are  sometimes  shortened. 

Ecthlipsis  is  when  m  is  cut  off  with  a  vowel  before  it  at  the 
end  of  a  word,  because  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel. 

Synceresis,  is  the  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one.  Di&re- 
sis  divides  one  syllable  into  two.  Systole  is  when  a  long  sylla- 
ble is  made  short.  Diastole  is  when  a  syllable  usually  short  is 
made  long. 

Figures  of  Diction. 

Prosthesis  is  when  a  letter  or  syllable  is  added  to  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word,  as  gnavus  for  navus  .  Epenthesis  is  when  a  letter 
or  syllable  is  interposed  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  as  indup rrator, 
for  imperaior.  Syncope  when  a  letter  or  syllable  is  taken  from 
the  middle  of  a  word,  as  dixti  for  dixisti.  Apocope  when  a  letter 
or  syllable  is  taken  from  the  end.  Metathesis  is  when  a  letter  or 
syllable  is  transposed.  Antitl  sis  is  when  one  letter  is  put  for 
another. 

We  will  now  dismiss  the  Latin,  and  hasten  to  finish 
our  view  of  the  dead  languages  with  a  few  remarks  up- 
on the  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew. 

The  elements  of  the  Greek  language  are  by  no  means 
as  difficult  of  attainment  as  is  generally  believed.  The 
alphabet  may  be  learned  in  a  few  hours,  and  after  stu- 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES.  105 

dying  a  pronoun,  a  verb,  and  a  noun,  the  pupil  can  com- 
mence the  translation  of  such  simple  sentences  as  con- 
tain words  analogous  to  those  whose  declension  and 
conjugation  have  been  studied.*  Other  nouns,  verbs, 
&c.  can  then  be  studied,  and  application  be  made  as 
before.  In  this  way,  even  a  few  weeks  of  study  of  the 
Greek  language  may  prove  of  great  advantage. 

To  be  a  Greek  scholar,  it  requires  more  time  and  la- 
bor than  females  in  general  can  give  from  their  other 
pursuits ;  and  should  some  proceed  so  far  in  the  study  as 
to  perceive  the  difficulties  still  to  be  surmounted,  >a  sense 
of  their  own  comparative  ignorance  should  tend  to  ren- 
der them  humble  and  unpretending,  rather  than  confi- 
dent and  pedantic. 

This  harmonious  and  beautiful  language  is  that  of 
Aristotle,  Pindar,  Homer,  and  many  other  sublime  writ- 
ers, whose  works  contain  the  germ  of  most  of  the  sci- 
ences and  discoveries  upon  which  the  moderns  have  so 
much  prided  themselves. 

'  It  was  Homer/  says  an  energetic  writer,f  '  who  gave 
Jaws  to  the  artist;  it  was  Homer,  who  thundered  in  the 
senate  ;  and  more  than  all,  it  was  Homer  who  was  sung 
by  the  people ;  and  hence  a  nation  was  cast  into  the 
mould  of  one  mighty  mind,  and  the  land  of  the  Iliad 
became  the  region  of  taste,  the  birth  place  of  the  arts. 
Nor  was  this  influence  confined  within  the  limits  of 
Greece.  Long  after  the  sceptre  of  empire  had  pass- 
ed westward,  genius  still  held  her  courts  on  the  banks  of 
Ilysius,  and  from  the  country  of  Homer  gave  laws  to  the 
world.  The  light,  which  the  blind  old  man  of  Scio  had 
kindled  in  Greece,  shed  its  radiance  over  Italy,  and  thus 
did  he  awaken  a  second  nation  to  intellectual  existence. 
And  we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  power  which  this  one 
work  has  to  the  present  day  exerted  over  the  mind  of 

*  A  small  work  recently  published  by  Professor  Goodrich,  en- 
titled, ;  Lessons  in  Greek  Parsing/  conducts  the  pupil  in  this 
easy  and  agreeable  manner  through  the  elements  of  the  language. 
The  author,  in  having  made  the  access  to  this  beautiful  language 
thus  easy,  deserves  more  from  the  public  than  many  a  ponderous 
writer  of  unread  quartos. 

i  President  Wayland. 


106  ANCIENT    LANGUAGES. 

man,  by  remarking,  that  nation  after  nation,  and  century 
after  century,  has  been  able  to  do  little  more  than  trans- 
pose his  incidents,  new  name  his  characters,  and  para- 
phrase his  sentiments.' 

The  language  of  Homer,  with  the  fortunes  of  Greece, 
has  undergone  an  essential  change,  and  is  modified  with 
the  intermixture  of  the  Turkish  and  some  other  modern 
languages.  The  modern  Greek,  though  highly  melodi- 
ous, is  far  less  distinguished  for  sublimity  than  the  an- 
cient. 

Many  of  our  scientific  terms  are  derived  from  the 
Greek.  In  botany,  the  names  of  the  classes  and  orders 
of  plants  may  be  traced  to  this  source ;  as  monodelphia, 
from  monos,  one,  and  adelphia,  brotherhood.  In  che- 
mistry, we  have  the  word  oxygen,  from  oxus,  acid,  and 
gennao,  to  produce.  Many  words,  not  considered  tech- 
nical, are  of  Greek  origin,  as  athletic,*  gymnastic,t 
theatre,^  &,c. ;  theology,  from  theos,  God,  and  logos,  a 
word  or  discourse,  signifying  the  science  which  treats  of 
God  ;  physics,  from  phisis,  material  nature,  and  meta- 
physics, signifying  the  study  of  what  is  above  or  beyond 
matter. 

Those  of  you,  who  have  merely  learned  enough  of  the 
Greek  language  to  trace  the  derivation  of  words,  may 
consider  that  you  have  gained  a  key  to  an  important 
branch  of  knowledge  ;  by  means  of  which  your  own  lan- 
guage will  appear  in  a  new  and  interesting  light. 

The  Greek  language  is  that  in  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  written.  To  be  able  to  read  this  holy  volume 
in  the  original,  is  a  very  important  attainment,  and  on 
account  of  the  simplicity  of  the  style,  less  difficult  than 
is  generally  imagined.  To  an  English  lady,§  literature 
is  indebted  for  an  excellent  translation  of  Epictetus,  one 
of  the  Grecian  poets. 

The  Hebrew  is  the  language  of  the  ancient  Israelites, 
and  that  in  which  the  Old  Testament  was  written.  It  is 

*  From  the  Greek  athletis,  a  wrestler. 

t  From  gymnasium,  a  place  where  athletic  exercises  were  per- 
formed. 

t  From  theatron,  a  place  where  shows  were  exhibited. 
§  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Carter. 


ANCIENT    LANGUAGES.  107 

supposed  to  be  the  most  ancient  language  now  known, 
The  Jews  still  make  use  of  it  in  their  synagogues.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  Hebrew  is  highly  important  for  ministers 
of  the  gospel,  in  order  that  they  may  understand  the 
scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  in  their  original  strength 
and  beauty.  Few  ladies  attempt  this  study.  Its  connex- 
ion with  our  own  language,  or  with  science  is  but  slight. 
The  alchymists  however  had  borrowed  many  terms  from 
this  language,  and  these  words  along  with  the  fragments 
of  the  science  have  become  incorporated  with  chemis- 
try. 

For  the  encouragement  of  those  who  may  desire  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  languages,  I  will  mention  the  ac- 
quisitions of  a  young  lady  with  whose  biography  I  hope 
many  of  you  are  already  familiar ;  I  mean  Elizabeth 
Smith,  of  England,  who  died  at  the  commencement  of 
the  present  century. — Her  biographer  observes  that  she 
early  showed  a  great  desire  for  instruction,  and  devoted 
that  time  which  is  often  spent  in  trifling  amusements  to  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  Under  adverse  circumstances  of 
fortune,  which  allowed  her  few  advantages,  she  early  learn- 
ed the  Spanish  and  Italian  languages,  and  became  fami- 
liar with  geometry.  After  this,  she  acquired  the  German, 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  lauguages,  and  made  consid- 
erable progress  in  the  Arabian  and  Persian.  She  waS, 
says  her  biographer,  '  a  very  fine  musician,  and  those 
ladies  who  devote  almost  their  whole  time  to  this  single 
accomplishment,  may  feel  astonished  that  one  of  their  own 
sex  should  have  been  able  to  unite  with  it  such  proficien- 
cy in  abstruse  sciences.  She  was  at  the  same  time  remarka- 
ble for  attention  to  domestic  employments,  and  for  her  deli- 
cate taste  in  dress,  displaying  as  much  skill  in  making  a 
gown  or  cap  as  in  explaining  a  problem  in  Euclid  or  a 
difficult  passage  in  Hebrew.3  Of  her  Hebrew  translations 
one  of  the  most  learned  scholars  of  Europe  observes, 
'  This  work  strikes  me  as  Conveying  more  of  the  true 
character  and  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  than  any  other 
translation  that  we  possess.5  This  character,  so  perfect 
in  intellect,  so  pure  and  amiable  in  morals,  possessed  al- 
so that  crowning  ornament,  without  which,  as  a  whole,  it 
would  have  been  imperfect — piety.  She  was  called  to  an 


108  MODERN   LANGUAGES. 

early  grave  ;  but  the  embalming .  spirit  of  religion  had 
anointed  her  body  for  burial,  and  preserving  in  all  their 
loveliness  the  beautiful  lineaments  of  her  mind,  prepar- 
ed it  for  a  high  station  among  those  pure  and  holy  in- 
telligences, who  differ  in  degree  of  knowledge  and  happi- 
ness, as  '  one  star  differeth  from  another  star  iri  glory.' 


LECTURE  XI. 

Modern  Languages. 

SOME  of  the  modern  tongues  are  generally  admit- 
ted to  be  desirable  accomplishments  for  young  ladies. 
Facilities  for  acquiring  these  are,  however,  less  frequent 
than  for  learning  Latin  and  Greek.  I  refer  here  to  those 
cases  in  which  girls  are  educated  at,  home  during  the 
first  twelve  or  fourteen  years. 

People  who  reside  in  the  country,  unless  in  the  vicinity 
of  literary  institutions,  seldom  have  an  opportunity  of 
learning  the  modern  tongues  from  well  qualified  teachers, 
as  such  can  find  more  eligible  situations  in  populous 
places.  But  there  are  few  country  towns  where  some 
persons  might  not  be  found  competent  to  teach  the  dead 
languages.  The  clergyman,  lawyer  or  doctor  of  the  parish 
would  probably  be  willing  to  devote  a  small  portion  of 
time  to  a  review  of  classical  studies,  or  a  young  lady's 
father  or  brother  may  be  able  to  assist  her  in  acquiring 
the  elements  of  the  dead  languages.  A  pupil  thus  pre- 
pared to  commence  French,  or  any  other  modern  lan- 
guage, may  be  expected  to  make  rapid  progress. 

Few  except  the  natives  of  a  country  are  competent  to 
teach  its  language.  There  are  probably  some  English 
teachers  of  the  French,  who  by  long  practice  have  acquir- 
ed a  tolerably  correct  pronunciation  ;  but  in  general  it  is 
not  advisable  to  commence  this  language  under  any  but 
a  native  teacher.  The  Spanish  pronunciation,  being 
much  more  easy  to  an  English  tongue,  may  be  better 


MODERN  LANGUAGES. 


109 


taught  by  an  English  teacher  than  the  French  or  Italian. 
The  Italian  is  less  difficult  than  the  French. 

Books  which  attempt  lo  give  the  sounds  of  French 
words  by  combinations  of  English  letters,  always  mislead  a 
student.  For  example,  in  a  work  professing  to  be  a  guide  fco 
French  pronunciation,  I  find  a  direction  to  pronounce  the 
word  brouillard,  a  storm,  thus,  broolar  ;  the  /  being  mark- 
ed as  silent,  the  pronunciation  would  be  brooar.  Those 
of  you  who  are  accustomed  to  the  peculiar  changes  of 
some  of  the  organs  of  speech  in  the  pronunciation  of  the 
French  liquid  sounds,  will  at  once  perceive  the  impossibili- 
ty of  expressing  the  same  by  any  combination  of  English 
sounds.  I  might  add  many  other  examples  equally  tending 
to  show  that  the  French,  as  a  spoken  language,  must  be 
learned  orally.  Those  who  have  not  the  advantages  of  ac- 
quiring the  French  accent,  may,  even  without  a  teacher, 
learn  to  translate  the  language.  While  no  other  tongue 
is  so  difficult  to  pronounce  as  the  French,  no  other  is  so 
easily  translated  into  English. 

At  the  present  time,  the  French  is  more  generally 
spoken  than  any  language  in  the  world.  It  is  a  medium 
of  communication  common  to  the  polite,  as  is  the  Latin 
to  the  learned.  It  is  the  language  in  which  the  diplo- 
matic correspondence  of  the  different  courts  of  Eu- 
rope is  usually  carried  on.  It  is  a  familiar  sound  in  the 
streets  of  St.  Petersburg,  Rome,  Madrid,  London  and 
New  York.  The  educated  South  American  speaks 
French  almost  like  a  Parisian ;  and  few  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  West  Indian  islands  are  ignorant  of  the  lan- 
guage. In  many  parts  of  Canada  and  Louisiana  it  is 
the  prevailing  tongue. 

You  see  then  how  valuable  must  be  a  language  so 
extensive  in  its  use ;  and  the  opportunity  which  is  here 
enjoyed  of  acquiring  it  in  its  native  elegance  of  pronun- 
ciation, should  be  prized  and  improved  by  those  who  are 
thus  privileged. 

The  French  literature  is  rich  and  diversified.  It  is 
not,  however,  to  be  expected  that  all  who  study  this 
language  will  become  so  familiar  with  it  as  to  be  able 
to  speak  or  even  to  read  it  with  fluency  ;  but  it  should  be 
accounted  no  useless  attainment  to  be  able  to  translate  the 
10 


110  MODERN    LANGUAGES. 

occasional  French  sentences  which  you  will  meet  with 
in  the  course  of  your  English  reading.  At  the  present 
day,  scarcely  a  new  publication  appears,  which  does 
not  contain  more  or  less  French  words  and  senten- 
ces. They  are  also  much  introduced  into  conversa- 
tion;  and  we  are  constantly  hearing  people,  (and 
among  these,  some  who  know  nothing  of  the  lan- 
guage except  as  they  provide  themselves  for  partic- 
ular occasions,)  expressing  themselves  after  the  French 
tournure,  and  in  French  phrases. 

Many  of  the  French  words  which  may  be  considered 
as  adopted  into  our  own  language  are  still  pronounced 
with  their  original  French  sounds,  as  debut,  depot,  eclat, 
&c.  It  would  appear  ludicrous  to  a  polite  ear  to  hear 
these  words  pronounced  according  to  the  analogies  of 
the  English. 

A  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  French  language,  with 
some  remarks  upon  its  literature  may  not  be  useless  or 
uninteresting  to  you.  The  French  language,  is  compar- 
atively of  modern  origin.  France  was  anciently  called 
Gaul,  or  Gallia.  The  first  inhabitants  of  this  country 
mentioned  in  history  were  the  Celts.  Some  vestiges  of 
their  language  are  said  to  appear  in  the  dialect  of  the 
peasants  of  Brittany  in  France,  called  the  Armoric. 
When  Gaul  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Julius 
Caesar,  the  Latin  was  introduced,  as  it  was  into  England 
about  the  same  time.  The  language  of  the  Franks  and 
other  savage  tribes  gradually  became  incorporated  with 
that  of  the  Gauls  and  the  Romans ;  and  the  whole  form- 
ed  a  corrupt  dialect  which  was  called  the  Romance,  or 
Roman  rustic ;  *  because  spoken  by  the  peasantry,  who 

*  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  old  romance,  or  Roman 
rustic,  as  exhibited  in  Morland's  history  of  the  churches  of  the 
valleys  of  Piemonts. 

'  Car  la  plus  fort  arma  dura  que  lo  Diavol  aya  son  las  fennas, 
laqual  cosa  es  dernonstra,  car  lo  Diavol  eslegic  la  fenna  a  decebre 
lo  premier  home.  Et  Balaam  acer  eslegic  aquestas  a  degittar  lo 
filli  d'  Israel.' 

'  Now  the  strongest  arms  the  Devil  hath  are  women,  which 
thing  is  shown  in  that  the  Devil  made  choice  of  the  woman  to  de- 
ceive the  first  man  by.  And  Balaam  made  choice  of  them  to  re- 
ject the  children  of  Israel.' 


MODERN  LANGUAGES. 


Ill 


had  mixed  their  own  language  with  Latin  words  and 
idioms.  This  dialect  was  divided  into  two  branches, 
which  received  their  names  from  the  respective  modes 
of  pronouncing  the  terms  for  the  affirmative  yes.  In 
the  southern  part  of  France,  this  was  expressed  by  Oc, 
and  their  dialect  was  called,  langue  d'Oc  (the  language 
of  Oc)  or  Occitanic  dialect.  North  of  the  Loire,  where 
yes  was  expressed  by  oui,  the  language  was  called 
langue  d'Oui;  from  the  latter  was  derived  the  Modern 
French.  In  the  12th  century  the  south  of  France  was 
united  under  one  government  called  Provence,  and  the 
langue  d'Oc  then  took  the  name  of  Provencal.*  At 
this  time  the  Northern  dialect  assumed  the  name  of 
French.  The  accent  of  the  people  in  the  south  of 
France,  at  this  time,  differs  considerably  from  that  of 
the  Parisian. 

It  was  about  this  period  that  the  Troubadours,  or 
wandering  minstrels,  gave  to  the  French  people  a  taste 
for  poetry  and  romance.  The  Crusades  had  served  to 
foster  the  most  extravagant  passions,  and  had  given  rise 
to  the  most  romantic  incidents.  The  human  mind 
glowing  with  new  and  tender  images,  and  luxuriating  in 
the  unrestrained  freedom  of  those  lawless  days,  exhibited 
a  strange  mixture  of  wildness  and  refinement.  This 
was  a  period  peculiar  to  itself,  and  one  which  has  furnished 
modern  fiction  with  its  choicest  materials.  The  very 
name  of  Chivalry,  knight  or  troubadour,  seems  to  call 
up  the  spirit  of  curiosity  and  give  interest  to  a  tale  or 
song.t 

The  song  of  the  Troubadour  was  heard  with  equal 
delight  in  the  castle  and  in  the  cottage,  by  courtly 
dames  and  humble  peasants.  None  of  the  productions 
of  those  poets  are  now  celebrated  in  literature. 

The  fifteenth  century  produced  a  poet  of  great  taste 
and  sweetness,  Charles  d' Orleans,  father  of  Louis  XII., 
and  uncle  of  Francis  I.  He  composed  most  of  his  po- 

*  The  mark  under  the  t',  in  the  word  Prove^al,  is  the  French 
cedilla,  which  denotes  that  c  has  the  sound  of  s. 

t  Mrs.  Hemans'  popular  song  of  <  The  knight  look'ddown  from 
the  Paynim's  Tower,'  is  thus  most  happily  chosen  for  effect. 


112  MODERN    LANGUAGES. 

etry  while  imprisoned  in  England,  whither  he  was  carried 
after  having  been  captured  at  the  battle  of  Agincouru 
Cotemporary  with  this  poet,  was  Clotilde  de  Sarville, 
many  of  whose  thoughts  were  strikingly  beautiful,  and 
whose  style  was  highly  polished  for  the  time  in  which 
she  wrote.* 

*  It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  pupil,  in  French  to  note  the 
peculiar  orthography  of  that  remote  period,  while  all  may  delight 
in  those  sweet  and  touching-  expressions  of  maternal  love  of  this- 
female  writer  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

VERSLETS  A  MOJV  PREMIER  NE. 

'  O  cher  enfantelet,  vray  pourtraict  de  ton  pere, 
Dors  sur  le  seyn  que  ta  bousche  a  presse  ! 

Dors,  petiot ;  cloz,  amy,  sur  le  seyn  de  ta  mere, 
Tien  doulx  oeillet  par  le  somme  oppresse. 

1  Bel  amy,  cher  petiot,  que  ta  pupille  tendre, 

Gouste  ung  sommeil  qui  plus  n'est  faict  pour  moy  I 
,        le  veille  pour  te  veoir,  te  nourrir,  te  defendre — 
Ainz  qu'il  m'est  doulx  ne  veiller  que  pour  toy  ! 

1  Estend  ses  brasselets;  s'espand  sur  lui  le  somme  i 
Se  clost  son  ceil :  plus  ne  bouge — il  s'endort — 

N'estoit  ce  tayn  flowry  des  couleurs  de  la  pommer 
Nele  diriez  dans  les  bras  de  la  mort  ? 

*  Arreste,  cher  enfant ! — j'en  fremy  toute  engtiere  i 

Reveille-toy  !  chasse  ung  fatal  propoz  ! 
Mon  fils  ! — pour  ung  moment — ah  !  revoy  la  lunicre  I 
Au  prilx  du  tien  rends-moy  tout  mon  repoz! 

1  Doulce  erreur  !  il  dormoit — c'est  assea — respire  ; 

Songes  legiers,  flattez  son  doulx  sommeil ! 
Ah  !  quand  voyray  cestuy  pour  qui  mon  coeur  souspire,, 

Aux  miens  costez,  jouir  de  son  reveil  ? ' 

LINES  TO  MY  FIRST  BORN. 

'  Sweet  babe  !  true  portrait  of  thy  father's  face, 
Sleep  on  the  bosom  that  thy  lips  have  prest ! 

Sleep,  little  one  ;  and  closely,  gently  place 
Thy  drowsy  eyelids  on  thy  mother's  breast. 

*  Upon  that  tender  eye,  my  little  friend, 

Soft  sleep  shall  come,  that  cometh  not  to  me  ' 
I  watch  to  see  thee,  nourish  thee,  defend — 
*Tis  sweet  to  watch  for  thee — alone,  for  thee. 

1  His  arms  fall  down  ;  sleep  sits  upon  his  brow  ; 

His  eye  is  closed  :  he  sleeps — how  still  and  calm  f 
Wore  not  his  cheek  the  apple's  ruddy  glow, 

Would  you  not  say  he  slept  on  death  s  cold  arm? 


MODERN    LANGUAGES. 


113 


In  1539,  Francis  I.,  called  the  Father  of  Utters,  estab- 
lished a  professorship  of  the  French  language,  and  for- 
bade the  use  of  the  Latin  in  public  documents  and  judi- 
cial proceedings.  During  his  reign  the  language  was 
greatly  improved,  and  literary  men  received  the  most 
munificent  encouragement.  Clement  Marot,  a  poet  of 
those  days,  is  said  to  have  used  every  effort  to  re- 
form the  barbarities  of  his  language,  and  to  intro- 
duce refined  and  elegant  expressions.  He  acknowledged 
that  to  the  conversation  of  polished  females  he  was  in- 
debted for  the  improvements  which  he  introduced. 

In  1635,  the  Acadamie  Francaise,  consisting  of  forty 
members,  was  established  by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  To 
this  body  was  consigned  the  care  of  the  language  and 
literature  of  the  nation. 

In  1694,  was  published  the  dictionary  of  the  Academy, 
which  continued  lo  be  the  standard  of  the  French  lan- 
guage until  the  revolution  of  1789;  since  which  time, 
new  words  and  phrases,  corresponding  to  a  new  state  of 
things,  have  gradually  been  intioduced. 

To  Malsherbes,  a  man  of  great  genius  and  learning, 
whose  labors  preceded  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  is  ascrib- 
ed the  honor  of  having  rescued  the  French  language 
more  effectually  from  foreign  idioms  than  any  other 
writer  had  done.  So  peremptorily  did  he  insist  on  this 
point,  that  he  was  called  the  *  Tyrant  of  words  and  syl- 
lables;  and  it  is  said,  that  when  in  the  hour  of  death  his 
confessor  was  expatiating  on  the  joys  of  heaven,  he  beg- 
ged him  not  to  speak  on  such  a  subject  in  language  so 
vulgar  and  inaccurate. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  is  considered  as  the  Augus- 

1  Awake,  my  boy  ! — I  tremble  with  affright ! 

Awake,  and  chase  this  fatal  thought! — unclose 
Thine  eye  but  for  one  moment  on  the  light ! 

Even  at  the  price  of  thine  give  me  repose  ! 

*  Sweet  error  ! — he  but  slept—  1  breathe  again — 
Come  gentle  dreams,  the  hour  of  sleep  beguile !    '' 

Oh !  when  shall  he,  for  whom  [  sigh  in  vain, 
Beside  me  watch  to  see  that  waking  smile  ? ' 

For  this  translation,  and  some  facts  relating  to  French  literature, 
the  author  is  indebted  to  the  jNorth  American  Review. 

10* 


114  MODERN    LANGUAGES. 

tan  age  of  French  literature.  Montaigne  at  this  period 
complained  of  the  fluctuating  character  ofhis  language, 
and  endeavored  to  give  it  energy  and  stability.  Cor- 
neille,  Moliere^  Racine  and  Voltaire  successively  occu- 
pied the  public  with  their  dramatic  writings.  Fenelon, 
the  amiable  and  pious  author  of  Telemachus,  distinguish- 
ed himself  for  several  valuable  and  interesting  works. 
Rousseau  rendered  himself  famous  for  talents,  and  infa- 
mous for  the  abuse  of  them.  Condillac  was  an  able  met- 
aphysical writer  of  a  later  period ;  although  professing 
himself  a  disciple  of  Locke,  he  seems  to  have  miscon- 
ceived the  opinions  of  that  writer  in  some  important 
points,  especially  with  regard  to  sensations ;  these  Locke 
considered  to  be  the  moving  cause  of  certain  mental 
operations,  which,  being  independent  of  matter,  were 
therefore  entirely  different  from  sensations.  He  termed 
them  ideas  of  reflection.  Condillac  erroneously  supposed 
jthe  language  of  Locke  to  be,  that  all  our  mental  opera 
tions  were  sensations,  and  the  shadows  of  sensations, 
Mr.  Locke's  ideas  of  reflection  were  called,  in  the  system 
of  Condillac,  sensations.  Mr.  Locke  termed  feelings,  or 
reflections,  the  mind  looking  in  upon  itself;  while 
Condillac  probably  understood  him  to  mean  the  reflect- 
ed  images  of  sensations.  But  although  we  admit  that  sen- 
sation seems  to  awaken  in  the  mind  the  germ  of  thought, 
we  cannot  consider  our  intellectual  states  of  mind 
or  our  emotions  merely  as  sensations  under  a  new  form. 

Among  the  female  writers  in  the  French  language, 
aie  Madame  de  Genlis,  distinguished  for  the  num- 
ber of  her  works,  (amounting  to  more  than  one  hun- 
dred volumes),  Madame  de  Stae'l,  a  woman  of  a  pow- 
erful and  masculine  intellect,  and  Madame  de  Sevigne, 
whose  letters  are  considered  as  patterns  of  epistolary 
writing.  I  would  also  mention  Madame  Campari,  whose 
ideas  on  female  education  were  more  just  and  solid  than 
jnost  of  her  cotemporaries. 

We  have  already  devoted  more  time  to  the  considera- 
tion of  language.-  than  was  at  first  intended,  and  must 
omit  enlarging  upon  the  Spanish  and  Italian  literature. 
These  are  much  less  extensive  thaw  the  French ;  yet  these 
languages  possess  claims  to  the  attention  of  the  student 


MODERN    LANGUAGES.  115 

who  has  leisure  and  opportunity  for  acquiring  them. 
The  Spanish  excels  in  dignity,  the  Italian  in  sweetness. 
From  their  analogy  both  with  the  French,  and  Latin  a 
knowledge  of  those  languages  may  be  easily  obtained  by 
one  who  understands  either  of  the  two  latter. 

With  this  lecture  will  close  our  view  of  languages,  to 
which  branches  of  study  we  have  hitherto  given  our 
attention,  have  all  a  relation  as  to  one  common  object. 
Several  of  the  first  lectures  of  our  course  were  prelimi- 
nary considerations  on  the  subject  of  education  in  gen- 
eral. In  commencing  with  the  individual  branches,  we 
considered  the  process  of  combining  articulate  sounds 
in  a  manner  to  form  words,  the  importance  of  a  know- 
ledge of  orthography,  and  pointed  out  some  methods  for 
correcting  bad  habits  of  spelling. 

Secondly,  we  remarked  upon  the  process  of  learning 
to  read,  the  requisites  for  the  good  reader,  a  peculiar  im- 
portance of  this  qualification  to  our  own  sex,  and  some 
of  the  defects  most  common  in  this  department  of  edu- 
cation. 

Thirdly,  we  remarked  upon  that  science  which  gives 
rules  for  the  construction  of  sentences,  and  by  means  of 
which  language  receives  its  character  and  permanency. 
That  mode  of  speech  which  has  no  grammatical  stand- 
ard, can  be  considered  only  as  a  kind  of  savage  dialect. 
As  a  people  become  civilized,  they  naturally  fix  the 
boundaries  and  idioms  of  their  language. 

Fourthly,  from  the  consideration  of  grammar,  or  the 
study  of  our  own  language,  we  proceeded  to  consider  the 
use  of  the  Latin,  as  a  branch  of  female  education.  On 
account  of  its  utility  in  giving  correct  ideas  of  our  own 
and  other  modern  tongues,  and  especially  its  important 
aid  to  mental  discipline,  it  was  recommended  to  those 
who  can  have  the  advantages  of  a  liberal  course  of  study. 
Our  view  of  ancient  languages  closed  with  some  brief 
remarks  upon  the  Greek  and  Hebrew. 

Fifthly,  we  considered  the  study  of  modern  languages, 
devoting  our  attention  chie>fly  to  that  of  the  French, 
which,  on  account  of  the  greater  extent  to  which  it  is 
spoken  and  the  superior  richness  of  its  literature,  de- 
mands the  greatest  attention. 


116  MOBERtf 

Wo  are  now  to  commence  with  a  different  department 
of  education,  to  begin  a  review  of  certain  other  branch- 
es of  study,  which,  like  those  we  have  already  examined, 
have  an  intimate  relation  to  each  other.  Several  of  our 
next  lectures  will  be  devoted  to  modern  and  ancient  ge- 
ography, modern  and  ancient  history,  and  mythology, 
between  all  of  which  their  is  a  connexion  more  or  less 
intimate.  In  these  studies,  although  language  ceases  to  be 
the  immediate  subject  of  our  inquiry,  we  are  still  de- 
pendent upon  it  as  a  medium  of  communication. 

We  are  now  to  consider  the  earth,  with  respect  to  its 
general  and  particular  divisions;  its  features  both  of  land 
and  water  ;  the  races  and  nations  of  human  beings  who 
have  dwelt  upon  its  surface,  with  its  various  revolutions, 
civil,  political  and  moral.  As  we  ascend  into  antiquity, 
^>ur  lights  become  dim  and  uncertain,  and  carry  us  into 
the  fabulous  regions  of  mythology.  Most  of  the  ancient 
divinities  are  supposed  to  be  distinguished  persons,  who, 
for  their  good  or  evil  deeds,  were  immortalized  by  be- 
coming objects  of  worship ;  the  favor  of  some  being  im- 
plored, while  the  wrath  oi  others  was  deprecated. 


LECTURE  XII. 

/ 

Modern  Geography. — Ancient  Geography. 

IN  pursuing  the  course  at  first  marked  out  for  our 
Saturday's  lectures,  I  find  the  subject  of  intellectual  im- 
provement expanding  so  much  before  me,  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  pass  over  in  a  more  cursory  manner  than 
could  be  wished,  the  various  branches  of  education 
which  occupy  the  attention  of  the  individual  members  of 
an  institution,  including  pupils  differing  widely  from  each 
Other  in  age  and  literary  acquirements. 

On  account  of  this  diversity,  I  sometimes  feel  an  em- 
barrassment respecting  the  style  in  which  you  should  be 
addressed,  and  the  kind  of  information  most  proper  to 


MODERN    GEOGRAPHY.  117 

be  communicated ;  for  in  endeavoring  to  accommo- 
date myself  to  the  capacities  of  the  more  advanced  pu- 
pils, there  is  danger  that  others  may  be  uninterested  and 
uninstructed  ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  to  address  my- 
self generally  to  the  younger,  and  less  understanding 
class  of  pupils,  would  be  to  discourage  those  who  give 
tone  and  character  to  the  institution,  and  for  whose  im- 
provement it  is  more  especially  designed. 

But  it  is  not  useless  for  the  advanced  pupil  occasion- 
ally to  look  back  to  the  elements  of  sciences  which  have 
become  familiar,  and  to  take  general  views  of  what  has 
been  passed  in  detail.  When  laboring  to  reach  the  sum- 
mit of  Mount  Ida*  you  have  not  been  as  sensible  of  the 
actual  appearances,  and  especially  of  the  relative  situa- 
tions of  the  various  streets  and  buildings  which  you 
passed,  as  when  you  could  look  down  from  a  command- 
ing height  on  those  objects  ;  you  then  enjoyed  the  scen- 
ery as  a  whole,  and  saw  the  separate  objects  combining 
to  form  one  beautiful  scene.  So  it  is  in  science,  each 
separate  principle  and  fact  at  first  engages  the  atten- 
tion, one  difficulty  arises  as  another  is  conquered,  until 
the  mind  delights  to  pause  in  the  ascent,  and  look 
down  on  the  prospect  beneath.  It  is  thus  that  it  becomes 
invigorated  for  new  toils. 

If  younger  pupils  shall  sometimes  hear  subjects  dis- 
cussed which  they  do  not  comprehend,  it  may  serve  to 
quicken  their  diligence  to  attain  knowledge  which  they 
perceive  to  be  familiar  to  others.  It  is  well,  too,  for  them, 
that  their  curiosity  should  be  excited — well  for  them  to 
perceive  the  many  paths  of  knowledge  which  lie  before 
them,  and  in  exploring  which,  although  there  is  labor, 
there  is  also  an  ample  reward. 

It  was  my  intention  to  have  given  a  sketch  of  the  his- 
tory, uses  and  applications  of  the  different  branches  of 
female  education  ;  but,  as  before  remarked,  in  order  that 
the  literary  department  of  our  course  shall  not  occupy  a 
much  greater  space  than  its  relative  importance  demands, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  be  more  general  than  may  be  in- 

*  An  eminence  east  of  Troy,  and  a  favorite  walk  of  the  pupils 
of  the  seminary. 


118  MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 

teresting  to  you,  or  satisfactory  to  myself.  I  said  the 
relative  importance,  for  in  comparison  to  the  moral  and 
religious  formation  of  the  youthful  mind,  literary  attain- 
ments dwindle  into  insignificance.* 

We  will  now  proceed  to  notice  the  science  of  geogra- 
phy. On  the  importance  of  this  study  it  is  unnecessary 
to  dwell,  since  it  is  usually  a  favorite  pursuit  with  most 
young  persons,  and  in  most  schools  receives  a  large 
share  of  attention. 

Great  improvements  within  a  few  years  have  been 
made  in  the  methods  of  teaching  geography,  and  in  the 
books  used  for  that  purpose.  Twenty  years  since,  the  best 
works  used  were  those  of  Dwight,  Morse  and  Guthrie. 
Dwight's  geography  was  in  the  form  of  question  and  an- 
swer ;  it  was  unaccompanied  by  an  atlas  or  maps  of  any 
kind.  Morse's  first  work,  though  superior  to  Dwight's 
contained  no  attempt  at  classifying  facts  in  a  philosoph- 
ical manner  ;  a  pupil  might  study  it  diligently  for  months, 
and  yet,  for  want  of  some  connecting  principle,  the 
knowledge  acquired  would  neither  be  useful  or  per- 
manent. Guthrie's  geography  was  a  voluminous  work, 
containing  a  great  mass  of  matter,  but  equally  unphilo- 
sophical  in  its  arrangement  as  other  cotemporaneous 
works. 

It  is  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  that  the  present  meth- 
od of  teaching  geography  by  maps,  has  been  introduced. 
For  some  time  after  geographies  were  accompanied  with 
atlasses,  no  attempt  was  made  to  teach  the  drawing 
of  maps,  except  in  a  laborious  and  unprofitable  man- 
ner, which  occupied  weeks,  and  even  months,  with 
little  other  advantage  than  that  of  giving  to  the  pu- 
pil neatness  of  execution.  This  method  consisted  of 
delineating  maps  upon  paper,  and  coloring  and  print- 
ing them.  These  maps  had  a  very  pretty  appear- 

*  It  was  the  intention  of  the  author  when  preparing  these  lec- 
tures for  the  press,  to  have  included  in  one  volume  the  different 
departments  of  education,  as  well  as  lectures  on  the  duties  of  ed- 
ucated women  in  their  various  relations ;  but  the  literary  depart- 
ment seemed  to  embrace  too  many  subjects  to  be  examined  with- 
in the  space  at  first  allotted  to  it.  The  more  important  subjects 
which  remain,  the  author  proposes  to  include  in  a  second  volume. 


MODERN    GEOGRAPHY.  119 

ance,  but,  as  they  were  often  drawn  by  tracing  on 
paper  laid  over  the  original  ;  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
was  usually  too  intent  on  the  mechanical  performance 
to  think  of  the  relative  situation  of  places.  A  young 
lady,  after  spending  three  months  at  a  boarding  school, 
and  having  drawn  and  painted  a  map,  was  considered 
as  well  versed  in  geography,  though  in  truth  she  might 
be  almost  as  ignorant  of  the  science  as  the  uncon- 
scious material  on  whose  surface  her  map  had  been  de- 
lineated. 

The  system  of  teaching  geography  as,  published  by 
Mrs.  TV^illard  and  Mr.  Woodbridge,  in  their  series  of  geo- 
graphical works,*  was  introduced  by  the  former  into  her 
school  in  Middlebury,  Vermont,  about  the  year  1816. 
She  had  no  books  which  contained  her  plan,  and  taught 
her  pupils  from  her  own  manuscripts.  She  made 
great  use  of  maps  in  every  recitation.  The  exercise 
of  the  pupil  in  drawing  maps  upon  the  black  board 
is  an  improvement  of  still  later  date.  You  can  all 
bear  witness  that  this  is  a  most  effectual  method  of  im- 
printing on  the  mind  the  contiguity  and  relative  situa- 
tions of  countries.  Another  great  improvement  in  teach- 
ing this  science  is  that  the  pupil  now  commences  with 
his  own  town  and  country,  and  proceeds  from  thence  to 
distant  places. 

It  seems,  at  this  period,  absurd  to  imagine  a  child  re- 
ceiving for  his  first  lesson  in  geography,  a  description  of 

*  Some  years  before  the  publication  of  these  books,  Mrs.  Wil- 
lard  communicated  to  me  her  intention  of  preparing  a  geography 
on  a  new  plan  She  remarked  that  on  the  method  then  in  use 
the  principles  of  generalization  seemed  to  be  left  out  of  the  ques- 
tion ;  that  instead  of  taking  up  each  country  singly,  giving  an 
account  of  its  civilization,  manufactures,  state  of  education,  reli- 
gions, &c.,  these  subjects  should  be  treated  of  under  separate 
heads,  and  thus  comparison  and  generalization  be  made  to  aid  the 
memory,  while  at  the  same  time  this  method  of  arrangement 
would  prove  a  useful  discipline  to  those  mental  powers  which 
were  by  its  means  called  into  operation.  Mrs.  W.  remarked,  that  a 
work  on  such  a  plan  would  cause  a  new  era  in  teaching  the  sci- 
ence of  geography.  I  considered  this  at  the  time  a  bold  assertion; 
but  the  general  adoption  of  this  method,  the  distinctive  features 
of  which  are  more  fully  developed  in  the  Universal  Geography 
80  admirably  executed  by  Mr.  Woodbridge,  establish  its  truth 


120  MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  solar  system ;  for  the  next,  a  mathematical  account 
of  the  divisions  of  the  earth,  and  then  of  being  carried  to 
Africa,  Europe,  and  Asia,  before  a  word  is  said  of  his 
own  country.  We  now  reverse  this  method,  and  in  Mrs. 
Willard's  '  Geography  for  Beginners,5  the  teacher  is  di- 
rected to  present  the  child  with  a  map  of  his  own  town, 
to  direct  his  attention  to  the  river  before  his  own  door, 
to  the  mountains  which  are  in  sight,  and  the  towns 
which  bound  his  own  native  place.* 

The  word  geography  is  derived  from  the  Greek  get 
the  earth,  and  grapho,  to  delineate ;  but  its  primitive 
signification  of  a  delineation  of  the  earth  has  been  grad- 
ually extended,  so  that  now,  geography  includes  a  de- 
scription of  climates,  soil  and  productions,  and  even  of 
the  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  mankind. 

The  science  of  geography  is  intimately  connected  with 
astronomy ;  even  our  knowledge  of  the  figure  of  the  earth 
is  derived  from  observing  its  shadow  upon  the  moon, 
when  in  eclipse.  An  eclipse,  as  you  well  know,  is 
caused  by  the  shadow  of  the  earth  falling  upon  the 
moon ;  this  shadow  being  always  bounded  by  a  cir- 
cular line,  proves  that  the  body  which  caused  it  is 
round.  In  the  early  ages  of  mankind  the  earth  was 
supposed  to  be  a  round  flat  surface,  terminated  by  an 
immeasurable  gulf.  Each  barbarous  nation  supposed 
itself  in  the  centre  of  this  great  plain.  Some  supposed  that 
the  earth  rested  upon  the  back  of  an  enormous  elephant  ; 
and  the  elephant  rested  upon  a  huge  tortoise ;  but  here 
arose  a  greater  difficulty  than  at  first,  since  the  whole 
was  then  to  be  supported  by  sjme  new  monster.  You 
perceive  how  ridiculous  are  such  hypotheses ;  but  they 
are  not  more  so  than  a  thousand  others  which  were 
received  by  mankind  in  their  rude  state. 

*  By  teaching  pupils  in  this  simple  manner,  an  instruct- 
er  would  have  no  cause  to  fear  those  blunders  which  are 
sometimes  made  by  pupils  when  taught  definitions  before  they 
are  made  to  understand  facts.  A  teacher,  who  had  faithfully  la- 
bored to  prepare  a  class  for  examination,  asked  a  young  Miss  who 
stood  at  the  head,  <  What  is  Geography?'  The  pupil,  much  to 
the  entertainment  of  the  audience  and  chagrin  of  her  instructer, 
promptly  and  audibly  answered,  '  Geography  is  a  large  ball,  or 
globe.' 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 


121 


By  astronomy  we  learn  the  existence  of  what  is  called 
the  Solar  System,  having  for  its  centre  the  sun,  around 
which  revolve  several  wo;lds  or  planets :  the  earth  we 
inhabit  being  the  third  in  order  from  the  sun,  and  travel- 
ling in  a  path  called  its  orbit,  around  this  great  luminary, 
once,  in  a  period  of  time,  which  we  call  a  year.  This 
journey  causes  summer  and  winter :  for  when  the  earth 
is  in  that  part  of  its  orbit  where  the  sun  shines  directly 
upon  it,  we  have  summer,  and  when  in  that  part  where 
the  sun's  rays  fall  obliquely  we  have  winter.  Our  days 
are  longer  in  summer,  and  shorter  in  winter,  from  our 
change  of  situation  with  respect  to  the  sun. 

Although  it  is  the  real  motion  of  the  earth  around  the 
sun  which  causes  the  changes  in  their  relative  situations, 
yet  to  us,  the  sun  is  apparently  approaching  to,  and 
receding  from  the  earth.  In  March  and  September, 
the  sun  appears  to  be  at  the  equator,  and  the  days  and 
nights  are  equal  in  all  parts  of  the  world.*  After  the 
20th  of  March,  the  sun  appears  to  advance  towards  us, 
and  in  June  it  appears  at  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  which  is 
its  northern  boundary ;  after  this  it  turns  back  and  pur- 
sues its  course  towards  the  southern  tropic,  which  it 
reaches  in  six  months. 

We  learn  by  astronomy  that  the  planets,  and  our 
earth  among  the  number,  turn  as  if  upon  an  axis  once  in 
a  given  period  of  time.  The  earth  turns  completely 
round,  in  a  period  of  time  which  we  call  a  day.  This 
day  we  divide  into  twenty-four  parts,  each  of  which  we 
call  an  hour.  But  the  term  day  is  used  in  another 
sense,  viz.  to  denote  the  presence  of  the  sun,  while  its 
absence  is  called  night.  Thus  when  the  earth,  in  its 
turning  round,  carries  the  side  we  are  upon  away  from 
the  sun,  we  have  night;  when  we  are  carried  towards 
the  sun,  we  have  day. 

The  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  is  made  with 
reference  to  the  sun — those  parts  of  the  earth  over  which 
the  sun  is  sometimes  directly  overhead  are  called  the  torrid 
or  burning  zone.  In  the  temperate  zones  the  sun  is 

*  These  periods  are  called  the  equinoxes,  from  cequs,  equal,  and 
nox,  night ;  the  night  then  being  equal  to  the  day. 

11 


122  MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 

never  vertical,  but  the  length  of  the  days  is  not  over 
twenty-four  hours.  The  other  two  zones  are  the  frigid  j 
on  these  the  sun  shines  very  obliquely.  They  have  days 
varying  in  length  from  twenty-four  hours  to  six  months. 
That  department  of  geography  which  treats  of  the  various 
circles  supposed  to  be  described  on  its  surface,  as  parallels 
of  latitude,  meridians,  &c.,  is  called  mathematical  geo- 
graphy. 

But  we  have  not  yet  considered  what  supports  the 
earth.  Wonderful  as  it  may  seem  the  earth  stands  upon 
nothing  ;  like  the  moon  and  sun  it  is  suspended  in  the  hea- 
vens without  support.  You  know  that  even  a  little  ball  will 
not  remain  in  the  air  without  being  supported  by  some- 
thing :  why  does  the  ball  fall  to  the  ground  ?  Why  do 
all  heavy  bodies  fall  1  We  answer,  that  they  are  attract- 
ed to  the  earth  by  a  force  called  gravitation.  Now  the 
earth,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  is  kept  from  falling  by 
the -very  power  which  causes  a  stone  to  fall. 

The  sun,  by  the  force  of  gravitation,  attracts  the 
earth  towards  it ;  but  the  earth,  when  commencing  its 
course,  received  from  its  Creator  an  impulse  tending  to 
carry  it  in  a  direction  directly  contrary  to  the  sun: 
the  force  of  gravitation  tends  as  you  see  to  carry  it 
directly  towards  the  sun;  but  the  earth  obeying  neither 
forc.j,  though  influenced  by  both,  takes  a  middle  course, 
and  is  thus  kept  moving  round  the  sun.  The  connexion 
of  the  earth  with  the  sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies  is 
called  Astronomical  Geography. 

Physical  or  Natural  Geography  is  a  very  comprehen- 
sive science;  it  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  materials 
of  which  the  earth  is  composed.  This  knowledge 
embraces  the  science  of  Geology,  which  names  and 
arranges  the  rocks  and  other  materials  which  compose 
the  earth  ;  and  of  Chemistry,  which  teaches  the  constitu- 
ent elements  of  these  substances.  Thus  you  see,  that 
sciences  which  may  appear  distinct,  have  an  intimate 
connexion  with  each  other,  since  geology  and  chemistry 
are  necessary  to  a  complete  knowledge  of  geography. 
Physical  geography  also  comprehends  a  knowledge  of 
those  substances  which  grow  out  of  the  earth,  and  this 
knowledge  is  called  Botany. 


MODERN    GEOGRAPHY.  123 

We  will  suppose  ourselves  to  be  seated  in  a  balloon,  suffi- 
ciently elevated  above  the  surface -of  the  earth  to  be  able 
to  distinguish  its  general  figure  and  surface.  Let  us 
look  first  at  its  figure.  We  behold,  suspended  as  it  would 
seern  in  empty  space,  though  in  reality  surrounded  by  the 
material  substance  air,  a  large  ball,  not  exactly  round, 
but  a  little  flattened  at  each  end  or  pole.  This  ball  pre- 
sents an  uneven  surface:  while  it  is  turning  around  from 
west  to  east,  let  us  examine  the  various  objects  which 
appear.  For  this  we  must  approach  nearer.  Here  we 
see  a  long  strip  of  land  extending  almost  from  one  pole  to 
the  other ;  nearly  in  the  centre  it  seems  penetrated  by 
an  arm  of  the  ocean:  this  must  be  the  great  American 
continent,  separated  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  into  a  north- 
ern and  southern  part. 

We  will  suppose  that  our  balloon  is  somewhat  lowered 
and  directed  over  the  northern  part  of  this  great  conti- 
nent; and  what  do  we  now  see?  On  two  sides  are  va«t 
oceans,  washing  its  eastern  and  western  coasts,  and  on, 
the  north  an  ocean  of  ice  separates  it  from  the  north 
pole.  Do  you  observe  that  chain  of  lakes?  These  are 
called  the  Great  Lakes,  being  the  largest  in  the  world. 
Let  us  approach  nearer.  Do  you  hear  a  sound  like  the 
rush  of  mighty  waters?  It  is  the  thundering  Niagara, 
which  had  poured  forth  its  mass  of  waters,  long  be- 
fore man  had  heard  the  roar  of  its  cataract.  But 
what  becomes  of  this  vast  collection  of  water?  It 
hurries  onward,  forming  mighty  rivers  and  lakes,  until  it 
becomes  lost  in  the  great  ocean,  which  you  see  on  the 
east. 

But  we  must  not,  in  the  sublimity  of  this  scene,  forget 
that  we  have  other  observations  to  make.  Let  us  direct 
our  course  towards  the  middle  of  this  country,  which  we 
call  North  America.  There,  from  the  north,  flows  a 
majestic  river,  receiving  in  its  course  many  noble 
streams ;  one,  rapid  and  turbulent,  bringing  along  mud 
and  roots  and  trunks  of  trees  ton*  up  in  its  fury,  comes 
foaming  from  the  west ;  another,  scarcely  less  rapid  in 
its  course,  comes  from  the  east:  the  parent  river, 
embracing  them  both  with  many  other  tributary  streams^, 
bears  them  on  to  the  southern  gul£ 


124  MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 

You  see  here  an  extensive  country,  through  which 
the  rivers  descend  from  the  north,  from  the  east  and 
west:  this  is  called  a  basin,  and  many  delightful  val- 
leys and  plains  does  it  contain  ;  its  sides  on  the  west  and 
east  are  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  Apalachian  on 
the  north,  a  high  ridge  which  divides  the  waters  that 
flow  towards  the  northern  ocean  from  those  which  run 
towards  the  southern  gulf. 

We  will  now  go  eastward,  and  pass  that  great  chain 
of  mountains  which  may  well  be  called  the  back  bone 
of  our  country.  We  are  now  on  its  eastern  side.  Look, 
and  you  will  see  many  rivers  flowing  towards  the 
eastern  ocean.  Do  you  observe  the  north-eastern  part 
of  the  section  of  country  we  are  now  viewing?  You 
may  there  see  mountains  with  snow-covered  tops ;  and 
farther  west,  another  chain  whose  summits  and  sides  are 
always  verdant :  between  these  mountains,  pursuing  a 
southern  course,  a  river  is  seen  whose  progress  at  first  seem 
hurried,  but  by  degrees  its  youthful  impetuosity  subsides, 
and,  with  calm  and  placid  motion,  it  bears  itself  on  to 
an  arm  of  the  ocean,  running  in  from  the  east,  and 
forming  the  southern  boundary  to  a  lovely  country.  The 
valley  of  this  river  is  adorned  with  the  ornaments  of  art 
and  the  richest  gifts  of  nature.  This  valley,  and  an 
extensive  territory  on  the  east  and  west  of  it  are  called 
New  England,  or  the  country  of  the  pilgrims.  History 
will  tell  you  why  these  names  are  given. 

But  our  aerial  journey  is  becoming  too  long  :  we  must 
retrace  pur  way  from  the  happy  valley  of  the  Connecti- 
cut. Let  us  go  westward,  and  descend  near  to  the  earth 
— here  we  see  our  own  Hudson,  carrying  on  its  bosom 
innumerable  little  objects,  passing  and  repassing  in  rapid 
motion,  as  if  actuated  by  a  spirit  of  intelligence  ;  but,  al- 
though not  gifted  with  intelligence  themselves,  they  are 
directed  in  their  course  by  intelligent  minds,  and  filled 
v/ith  rational  beings,  intent  on  business  or  pleasure.  These 
steam-boats  exhibit  one  of  the  proudest  victories  which 
mind  has  ever  achieved  over  matter ;  two  destructive 
elements  being  made  subservient  to  man's  convenience, 
and  obedient  to  his  will. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  the  place  where  the  Hudson 


MODERN    GEOGRAPHY.  125 

river  ceases  to  be  navigable ;  and  here,  in  a  little  flour- 
ishing city  on  its  eastern  bank,  we  will  alight  from  our 
imaginary  balloon,  and  close  our  voyage  of  discovery. 

Such  are  some  of  the  observations  of  physical  geogra- 
phy ;  in  order  to  understand  it,  you  must  in  imagination 
combine  at  one  view  the  great  features  of  nature — 
oceans,  lakes  and  rivers,  continents  and  islands,  table- 
lands, basins,  plains,  valleys,  and  deserts  :  these  are  all 
the  subjects  of  this  science. 

The  geological  character  of  mountains,  and  the  for- 
mation of  countries  are  also  to  be  noticed.  Wh^n  you 
know  the  geological  features  of  a  country,  you  can  form 
a  probable  estimate  of  the  character  of  its  soil,  the  quan- 
tity of  its  water,  arid  the  number  and  appear*  nee  of  its 
caves.  You  can  tell  whether  it  is  likely  to  contain  coal 
or  salt  mines,  iron  or  precious  metals,  and  even  the 
plants  which  would  probably  be  found  in  it.  What  is 
still  more  wonderful,  you  can  form  some  judgment  of 
the  moral  character  of  a  people,  from  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  Switzerland  is  famous  for  its  rugged  soil,  its  pure 
air  and  water,  and  its  patriotic  and  independent  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  a  primitive  country,  and  such  a  formation 
requires  hard  labor  for  its  cultivation.  The  effect  of  la- 
bor is  to  form  the  character  of  a  people  to  habits  of  or- 
der and  industry,  and  to  render  them  independent  of  oth- 
ers :  independence  produces  a  nobleness  and  elevation 
of  feeling,  and  courage  to  resist  oppression. 

A  country  having  a  secondary  or  alluvial  formation,  is 
generally  fertile ;  nature  almost  spontaneously  brings 
forth  sustenance  for  its  inhabitants.  Not  compelled  tp 
labor,  and  ignorant  of  intellectual  enjoyments,  man  de- 
generates ;  he  seeks  only  to  gratify  his  senses,  and  easi- 
ly becomes  a  slave  to  those  who  will  protect  and 
defend  him.  Slavery,  in  its  turn,  still  further  debases  the 
wretched  human  being.  The  situation  of  the  peasants 
of  Turkey,  of  Spain  and  Italy,  may  illustrate  the  influ- 
ence of  a  fertile  soil  upon  the  moral  character  of  a  peo- 
ple. 

But  I  have,  in  remarking  on  national  character,  anti- 
cipated what  belongs  to  Civil  or  Political  Geography, 
whose  province  it  is  to  describe  the  moral  condition  of 
11* 


126  MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 

mankind,  including  their  religion,  forms  of  government, 
moral  and  intellectual  improvement.  This  view  of  the 
world  is  sometimes  called  Historical  geography. 

You  will  now  see  that  geography  is  not  a  science  of 
memory  alone,  consisting  of  mechanical  recitations  of 
the  names  of  places,  and  the  situations  of  countries, 
rivers  and  mountains.  It  is  necessary  to  learn  to  view 
things  in  detail,  and  then  in  general,  to  compare  and 
reflect  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  geog- 
raphy. And  thus  you  perceive,  that  although  this 
science  is  highly  useful  for  the  information  which  it  com- 
municates, it  also,  when  properly  investigated,  serves  to 
develope  and  improve  the  faculties  of  reason  and  judg- 
ment, and  elevate  the  moral  character. 

Besides  Mathematical,  Astronomical,  Physical  and 
Political  geography  there  is  another  department  of  this 
scienjce  called  Statistical  geography,  or  that  which  gives  an 
account  of  the  length  and  breadth,  population,  bounda- 
ries and  commerce  of  different  countries. 

The  study  of  geography  tends  to  give  enlarged  and 
comprehensive  views  respecting  the  earth  we  inhabit. 
While  this  science  was  unknown,  and  mankind  in  igno- 
rance of  the  world  on  which  they  lived,  the  most  dark 
and  superstitious  fears  prevailed  with  respect  to  the 
living  beings  who  were  supposed  to  exist  in  certain  un- 
known regions.  Even  the  Romans,  enlightened  as  they 
were  for  the  period  in  which  they  flourished,  supposed 
the  hordes  of  barbarians  who  poured  in  upon  them,  were 
absolutely  without  limits,  as  to  numbers,  or  in  the  extent 
of  their  country.  Panic-struck  by  these  terrors,  the 
Romans  thus  became  an  easy  prey  to  a  people  whom 
they  thought  it  would  be  in  vain  to  resist. 

The  descendants  of  the  Romans,  afterwards  con- 
demned the  philosopher  Galileo  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment, for  daring  to  assert  that  the  earth  was  round,  and 
moved  on  an  imaginary  axis.  Spigelius,  a  bishop  of 
Topsal  in  Sweden,  was  burnt  at  the  stake,  for  expressing 
his  belief  in  the  gobularform  of  the  earth,  and  that  there 
might  be  people  who  had  night  when  it  was  day  in 
Sweden,  and  day  when  it  was  night  there,  or  that  were 


MODERN    GEOGRAPHY.  127 

their  antipodes.*  This  doctrine  was  by  the  superstitious 
and  ignorant  monks  declared  to  be  '  a  proposition  absurd 
in  its  very  nature,  false  in  philosophy,  heretical  in 
religion,  and  contrary  to  the  holy  Scriptures.' 

The  discovery  of  the  true  figure  of  the  earth  has  been 
of  incalculable  advantage  to  mankind.  Indeed,  we 
cannot,  without  pity,  think  of  the  period  when  the 
European  knew  nothing  of  the  earth,  but  of  his  own 
comparatively  little  continent.  All  else  was  dark  and 
mysterious  as  the  regions  beyond  the  grave. 

You  have  read  of  the  difficulties  encountered  by 
Columbus  in  obtaining  the  assistance  necessary  to  pros- 
ecute a  voyage,  in  which  he  believed  that  some  great 
discovery  awaited  him.  We  cannot,  however,  appreciate 
the  feelings  which  agitated  him,  as  hope  and  fear  for  the 
desired  aid  prevailed.  By  study  and  observation  he 
had  become  convinced  of  the  spherical  figure  of  the 
earth,  and  at  first  only  thought  of  finding  a  better  way 
of  sailing  to  the  East  Indies  than  by  the  long  and  dan- 
gerous passage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  but  on 
further  reflection,  he  thought  a  wise  Creator  would  not 
have  made  the  proportion  of  water  so  much  greater  than 
that  of  land,  and  therefore  inferred  the  existence  of 
another  continent. 

While  his  mind  was  laboring  with  these  grand  ideas, 
and  impressed  with  the  immense  importance  of  ascertain- 
ing the  correctness  of  his  reasoning,  he  was,  as  is  often  the 
case  with  those  who  attempt  great  things,  treated  by  many 
as  a  madman,  or  a  fool.  We  may,  my  dear  pupils,  justly  feel 
a  pride  in  the  thought,  that  a  woman  was  the  first  to  com- 
prehend the  sublime  conceptions  of  Columbus  ;  and  provi- 
dential indeed  does  it  appear  that  this  woman  was  a  sove- 
reign, able  as  well  as  willing  to  aid  the  genius  which 
her  mind  appreciated.  Isabella — let  the  daughters  of 
Columbia  ever  hold  thy  name  in  reverence !  let  them  re- 
member that,  without  thy  aid,  their  own  dear  country 
might  even  now  have  been  a  wilderness,  shared  by 
the  savage  heathen  and  the  scarcely  more  savage  beast 
of  the  forest ! 

*  Antipodes  is  from  two  Greek  words,  anti,  opposite,  and  podos, 
feet ;  meaning  people  who  live  on  opposite  sides  of  the  globe,  and 
whose  feet  are  therefore  directly  opposite. 


128  ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY. 


Ancient  Geography. 

Geography  is  properly  divided  into  Ancient  and  Modern. 
Acient  geography  commences  with  describing  coun- 
tries known  in  the  remotest  antiquity  respecting  which 
we  have  any  information.  Although  writers  agree  in 
dividing  both  geography  and  history  into  ancient  and 
modern,  they  differ  as  to  the  point  of  time  most  proper 
for  their  separation.  While  some  fix  this  at  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  western  empire  of  the  Romans,  A.  D.  476, 
others  prefer  to  divide  at  the  commencement  of  the  New 
Western  Empire,  under  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  800.  A 
third  period,  and  one  which  evidently  seems  the  most 
proper,  is  the  birth  of  our  Saviour. 

This  is  considered  as  having  taken  place  4004  years 
after  the  creation.  The  whole  Christian  world  now  reck- 
on time  from  the  birth  of  Christ :  thus  we  date  A.  D. 
(Anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord)  1831;  that  is, 
so  many  years  have  passed  since  his  birth.  So  in  public 
acts,  officers  of  the  government  date  from  the  indepen- 
dence of  our  country,  it  being  at  this  time  the  fifty-seventh 
year  of  American  Independence. 

Should  there  be  those  eighteen  hundred  years  hence 
who  should  dispute  the  fact  of  such  an  event  as  the  re- 
volution in  which  America  became  an  independent  na- 
tion, and  at.  the  same  time  should  public  acts  continue 
to  be  dated  from  this  event,  would  not  this  very  circum- 
stance substantiate  the  fact  1 

When  did  any  people  or  any  individual  begin  to  date 
from  an  event  which  never  took  place  ?  Were  there  no 
other  proof  of  the  appearance  in  the  world  of  Jesus  Christ, 
it  would  seem  as  if  the  fact  of  so  great  a  portion  of 
mankind  reckoning  from  such  an  event  might  convince 
the  most  sceptical.  Or,  if  he  was  nothing  more  than  an 
obscure  carpenter,  who  imposed  on  a  few  ignorant  fisher- 
men, until  he  was  finally  put  to  death  for  his  blasphemies, 
how  has  it  happened  that  his  birth,  after  a  period  of  more 
than  1800  years,  is  considered  a  more  important  event  than 
the  creation  itself?  Even  the  Deist,  who  ridicules  the  Chris- 
tian for  what  he  calls  his  credulity,  dates  from  the  birth  of 


ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY.  129 

Christ.  Which,  we  would  ask,  is  the  more  credulous, 
the  sceptic  who  believes  things  can  happen  without  a 
cause,  or  he  who  relies  on  evidence  the  most  certain  1 

The  study  of  ancient  geography  is  not  to  be  commen- 
ced before  some  aquaintance  with  modern.  After  learn- 
ing in  the  latter  the  situations  and  boundaries  of  places, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  connect  with  them  the  names  by 
which  they  were  anciently  known  :  thus  Caledonia  easi- 
ly becomes  associated  with  the  more  modern  name  Scot- 
land, Hibernia  with  Ireland,  Hispania  with  Spain,  Gaul 
with  France,  &>c.  Ancient  geography  teaches  how 
much  the  boundaries  and  extent  of  countries  have  changed 
and  what  part  of  the  world  was  known  or  unknown  to 
the  ancients.* 

A  knowledge  of  Ancient  geography  is  very  important 
to  a  right  understanding  of  the  sacred  writings,  and 
Ancient  History.  The  nations  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament  have  long  since  ceased  to  exist.  Of  the  As- 
syrian, Babylonian,  Egyptian  and  Syrian  empires,  noth- 
ing but  the  names  now  remains.  Their  proud  capitals, 
Nineveh,  Babylon,  Thebes,  Tyre  and  Sidon  have  disap- 
peared fiom  the  earth,  and  scarcely  do  we  know  the 
places  which  they  once  so  proudly  occupied. 

The  cities  of  the  Canaanites,  the  Midianites,  and  Phi- 
listines, with  those  of  their  conquerors,  the  Jews,  are 
all  swept  from  existence.  The  boundaries  of  these 
nations,  ancient  geography  cannot  well  define;  all 
that  it  can  do,  is  to  point  out  their  supposed  loca- 
tion. Of  the  people  who  inhabited  these  ancient  coun- 
tries, not  a  remnant  remains,  except  of  the  Hebrews 
or  Jews  ;  and  they  wandering  and  dispersed  over  the 
face  of  the  earth  ;  though,  still  preserving  their  ancient 
customs  and  religion,  prove  the  truth  of  the  sacred  volume, 
which,  while  it  prophesied  their  fate  as  a  nation,  foretold 
that  they  would  continue  a  separate  people.  A  part  of 

*  For  further  particulars  respecting  the  proper  method  of  pur- 
suing this  study,  reference  may  be  had  to  Mrs.  Willard's  An- 
cient Geography,  which  brings  within  a  small  compass  most  of 
the  important  facts  of  the  science,  and  designates  a  philosophical 
mode  of  classifying  and  arranging  them.  Lavoisne's  Ancient  At- 
las is  very  valuable  for  the  advanced  student,  but  is  on  a  scale  too 
large  for  schools. 


130  ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  prophesy  respecting  them,  viz.  that  they  shall  be 
collected  and  restored  to  their  ancient  city,  Jerusalem, 
still  remains  to  be  fulfilled.  The  Christian  world  are 
looking  for  this  event,  as  the  commencement  of  the  Mil- 
lenium or  that  period,  '  when  the  whole  earth  shall 
be  covered  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  as  the  waters 
cover  the  sea.' 

A  knowledge  of  Ancient  geography  is  of  great  assist- 
ance in  understanding  the  historical  parts  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  events  there  recorded  become  more 
deeply  impressed  upon  the  mind  when  the  location  of  the 
places  where  they  occurred  is  understood.  This  science 
points  out  Bethlehem,  where  our  Saviour  was  born  ;  Naza- 
reth, where  he  dwelt  with  his  parents ;  the  river  Jordan, 
where  he  was  baptized  ;  the  desert  of  Judea,  where  he  fast- 
ed forty  days  ;  Cana,  where  he  wrought  his  first  miracle  ; 
the  various  countries  over  which  he  traveled ;  the  lakes 
and  seas  which  he  crossed,  and  finally,  Jerusalem,  where 
he  was  crucified. 

Ignorant  of  the  situation  of  these  places,  it  is 
impossible  for  a  person  to  feel  that  interest  in  the  narra- 
tive with  which  they  are  connected,  that  would  otherwise 
be  experienced.  Suppose  upon  an  ancient  map  you  fol- 
low our  Saviour  in  the  various  events  of  his  life  :  you 
find  the  Mount  of  Olives,  overlooking  Jerusalem,  where, 
beholding  that  city,  he  wept  over  it ;  here  the  garden 
of  Gethsemane,  where,  being  in  agony  under  the  burthen 
of  our  sins,  he  prayed ;  and  there  another  mount,  that  of 
Calvary,  where,  the  great  work  of  our  redemption  being 
completed,  'the  Saviour  bowed  his  head  and  said,  It  is 
finished.'  Does  not  the  tracing  of  these  locations  help 
you  to  believe  and  realize  the  great  truths  of  Christianity  ? 

Without  being  accustomed  to  the  assistance  of  sensi- 
ble delineations,  people  are  in  danger  of  reading  the  his- 
torical parts  of  the  Scriptures,  as  they  would  some  tale  of 
fancy,  which,  floating  through  the  imagination,  leaves 
upon  the  mind  no  lasting  impression.  Not  that  one  can- 
not be  a  Christian  without  a  knowledge  of  ancient  geog- 
raphy, or  indeed  if  ignorant  of  every  human  science  ;  for 
blessed  be  the  name  of  Him  who  has  given  us  '  the  word 
of  life,'  it  is  so  simple  that  even  '  the  way-faring  man 


ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY.  131 

need  not  err  therein.'  The  truths  of  Christianity  appeal  to 
the  heart,  not  to  the  understanding,  and  are  accessible  to 
the  most  unenlightened.  Religion,  without  science,  is 
infinitely  preferable  to  all  knowledge  without  religion. 
But  when  religion  and  science  meet  in  the  same  mind, 
both  assume  a  higher  character.  Science  may  well  be 
considered  as  the  handmaid  of  piety;  for  it  will  ever  be 
such,  unless  perverted  and  abused. 

The  physical  department  of  Ancient  geography  varies 
but  little  from  the  modern  in  comparison  with  the 
changes  in  Civil  geography.  Yet  even  this  does  vary, 
and  the  very  face  of  nature  is  changing.  It  is  the  busi- 
ness of  Geology,  a  science  which  throws  much  light  upon 
Ancient  Physical  geography,  to  trace  the  progress  of  cre- 
ation, until  the  earth  became  a  solid  mass,  fitted  for  the 
production  of  vegetable  life  and  a  habitation  for  man  and 
beast.  We  learn  that  after  this  period,  various  agents 
have  been,  and  still  are,  constantly  producing  changes  in 
the  features  of  our  globe.  Some  operate  slowly,  as  the 
air,  which  gradually  dissolves  solid  substances,  separ- 
ating rocks  into  stones  and  crumbling  these  into  pebbles 
and  sand.  This  sand,  by  the  water  of  rivers  is  washed 
towards  their  mouths,  forming  new  land  or  deltas,  or  ac- 
cumulating in  the  middle  of  rivers,  and  forming  islands. 
Thus  the  higher  parts  of  countries  are  gradually  crumb- 
ling away,  while  the  lower  parts  accumulate.  Rivers 
are  often  blocked  up  by  such  accumulations,  and  their 
channels  turned  in  new  directions. 

The  region  around  us  is  probably  much  changed 
since  the  creation,  or  even  since  the  flood,  an  event 
which  produced  a  change  in  the  physical  aspect  of  the 
globe,  greater  than  any  other,  or  perhaps  all  others, 
which  have  ever  occurred.  It  is  impossible  to  pronounce 
with  certainty,  respecting  the  changes  which  may  have 
taken  place  in  the  region  watered  by  the  Hudson  and  its 
branches  ;  but  while  passing  down  its  current  and  ob- 
serving the  adjacent  country  on  each  side,  I  have  been 
strongly  impressed  with  the  belief  that  the  valley  of  this 
river  was  once  a  vast  lake  connected  with  the  lakes  on 
our  northern  border  ;  that  the  highlands  and  pallisadoes 
were  the  southern  boundary  of  this  lake.  The  waters 


132  ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY. 

forcibly  operating  upon  these  barriers,  might  by  degrees 
have  worn  them  away,  until,  opening  for  itself  a  pas- 
sage, this  mighty  mass  rushed  onward  to  the  ocean. 
This  however  is  mere  hypothesis,  which  should  never  be 
confounded  with  demonstrated  theories.  Each  one  of  you 
has  a  right  to  make  her  own  suppositions,  and  to  decide 
upon  the  probability  of  the  event  which  has  been  suggested. 
If  the  region  about  us  has  once  been  covered  with  water, 
it  seems  probable  that  Mount  Ida  and  Mount  Olympus 
were  islands  in  this  great  lake. 

About  two  miles  from  this  city,  on  the  east,  there  is  a 
beautiful  valley  ;  by  following  its  course,  you  will  find  it 
winding  its  way  towards  the  Hudson,  resembling  in  ap- 
pearance the  bed  of  a  river  whose  channel  has  been 
turned,  or  whose  waters  are  dried  up. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson  there  is  a  singular 
ravine,  often  called  the  dry  river;  this,  instead  of  the 
sloping  banks  of  the  beautiful  vale  on  the  eastern  side, 
has  abrupt  and  ragged  shores,  and  a  rocky,  uneven  bed  : 
a  little  rill  yet  lingers  among  the  rocks,  convincing 
us,  if  further  evidence  were  needed,  that  here  has  been  a 
noble  arm  of  the  Hudson.  Although  on  the  eastern  side, 
the  vale  of  which  I  have  spoken,  bears  less  incontestible 
marks  of  its  having  been  the  bed  of  a  river,  I  have 
little  doubt  but  that  too  was  covered  with  water  tributary 
to  the  large  river.  Referring  then  to  the  supposition 
that  the  Hudson  river  is  but  the  remains  of  a  great  lake, 
which  suddenly  discharged  its  waters  into  the  Atlantic, 
we  might  suppose  that  when  this  event  took  place,  many 
rivers  were  formed  by  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  ;  that 
these-  rivers  in  time  have  changed  their  channels,  or 
gradually  subsided  into  dry  land. 

These  hints  are  offered  with  a  view  to  induce  you  to 
pay  more  attention  to  the  natural  features  of  the  different 
places  where  you  reside  or  through  which  you  may  trav- 
el ;  to  remark  the  indications  of  changes  in  physical  geog- 
raphy, which  will  present  themselves,  when  journeying 
through  any  region  of  country.  Even  scenes  most  famil- 
iar to  you  may  never  have  been  viewed  in  reference  to  any 
investigation  respecting  the  causes  of  the  appearances 
which  present  themselves  :  by  bestowing  a  little  attention 


ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY.  133 

to  these  subjects,  nature  will  appear  in  a  new  aspect  and 
you  will  almost  begin  to  fancy  that  you  have  hitherto 
walked  blind-folded  through  her  curious  and  wonderful 
scenes. 

Although  in  many  cases  we  merely  infer  changes  in 
the  physical  character  of  countries  from  certain  indica- 
tions, yet  we  learn  from  history,  of  cities  being  sunk  by 
earthquakes  or  overwhelmed  by  the  lava  of  volcanoes,  of 
islands  suddenly  sinking  into  the  earth,  and  of  other 
islands  being  thrown  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

But  have  you  yet  studied  the  Ancient  Geography  of 
your  own  country  1 — We  have  said  that  geography  should 
begin  at  home ;  why  then  have  none  of  you  been  taught  the 
Ancient  Geography  of  the  United  States  ? — It  is  because 
we  have  no  ancient  geography.  We  are  not  only  a  new  na- 
tion, but  the  country  we  inhabit  is  new  ; — not  of  a  newer 
creation  than  that  which  we  call  the  old  world,  but  until  it 
was  discovered  in  1492,  it  had  been  inhabited  by  a  race  of 
men,  who,  ignorant  of  the  arts  of  printing  or  writing,  left 
no  records  of  what  they  or  their  country  once  were. 
Our  ancestors  a  little  more  than  two  hundred  years  since 
came  to  this  newly  discovered  country  ;  they  found  here 
a  savage  people,  who  knew  nothing  of  the  arts  and  re- 
finements of  civilized  life ;  who  had  no  history,  no  an- 
cient or  modern  geography  of  their  country.  They 
told  oar  ancestors  what  their  fathers  had  said  to  them, 
of  their  coming  from  the  far  west  towards  the  east.  But 
tradition  points  out  no  ancient  cities  like  those  which 
from  time  to  time  have  flourished  in  the  old  world. 

The  most  ancient  towns  in  New-England  are  Ply- 
mouth, Boston,  Hartford,  and  New-Haven  ;  in  the  Mid- 
dle States,  New- York  and  Albany ;  and  in  the  Southern 
States,  Jamestown  and  Savannah.  These  are  however 
young  and  mostly  flourishing.  Antiquity  has  not  yet 
shrouded  any  of  our  cities  or  heroes  in  the  obscurity  and 
indistinctness  necessary  to  the  sublime.  Our  Washing- 
ton is  remembered  by  many  who  now  live,  and  who 
knew  him  to  be  but  a  man,  though  a  great  and  good  one. 
Had  he  lived  in  ancient  days,  his  memory  would  have  re- 
ceived divine  honors :  he  would  have  been  enrolled  among 
12 


134  ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHr. 

the  demi-gods,  with  Perseus,  Hercules,  JEscuJapius,  and 
other  heroes  and  benefactors  of  mankind. 

The  study  of  ancient  geography,  in  bringing  you  ac- 
quainted with  places  no  longer  in  existence,  cannot  fail 
to  suggest  the  transient  nature  of  all  human  glory  and 
perfection.  The  works  of  man  are  all  perishable ;  and 
yet  these  are  more  enduring  than  their  authors. 

To  toil  a  few  short  years,  and  then  pass  away,  is  the 
destiny  of  man  as  regards  this  world  ;  but  the  most  mo- 
mentous consequences  depend  on  these  few  years  ;  even 
the  eternal  destiny  of  the  immortal  soul.  Could  we  pen- 
etrate the  unseen  world  of  spirits,  as  we  can  in  some  de- 
gree the  dim  twilight  of  antiquity,  we  should  behold  the 
effects  of  the  short  period  of  earthly  existence  upon  our 
fellow  mortals  who  have  gone  before  us  ;  for  the  scriptures 
affirm,  that  *  their  works  follow  them.' 

This  consideration  should  then  give  new  vigor  to  our 
efforts  ; — true,  marble  palaces  and  temples,  and  all  the 
works  of  art  crumble  into  ruins,  yet  the  moral  deeds  of 
mankind,  though  it  may  seem  that  they  too  are  carried 
down  the  mighty  stream  of  time,  are  arrested  in  their 
progress,  recorded  in  that  awful  register  of  human  ac- 
tions which  is  to  remain  sealed  till  the  '  great  day  of  ac- 
counts.' Who  among  us  will  not  have  a  fearful  list  of 
omissions  of  duty,  of  commissions  of  offences  to  answer 
for  ?  Not  a  single  human  being  is  without  sin,  not  one 
is  guiltless.  And  yet  we  read  in  the  word  of  God,  that 
without  holiness  no  man  shall  see  the  Lord.  What  then, 
shall  we  do?  are  we  to  be  forever  lost,  shut  out  from  his 
presence,  who  alone  can  make  us  glorious  and  happy  ? 
Where  shall  we  obtain  the  holiness  that  we  need  ?  Where 
shall  we  wash  away  the  guilt  with  which  our  souls  are 
stained  1 

Listen,  my  dear  pupils,  to  the  words  of  the  book  of 
life.  *  The  blood  of  Christ  cleanseth  from  all  sin.  He 
was  wounded  for  our  transgressions,  he  was  bruised  for 
our  iniquities,  with  his  stripes  we  are  healed.  His  blood 
is  shed  for  the  remission  of  sins.  If  we  confess  our  sins 
he  is  faithful  and  just  to  forgive  us  our  sins,  and  cleanse 
us  from  all  unrighteousness.' 


HISTORY.  135 

LECTURE  XIII. 

History. 

HAVING  acquired  some  knowledge  of  geography,  the 
mind  naturally  seeks  for  information  respecting  the  living 
and  moral  agents,  who  have  inhabited  the  earth  since  the 
period  of  its  creation.  There  are  two  methods  of  studying 
history ;  first  by  commencing  with  the  earliest  periods  of 
society,  and  descending  to  the  present  time  ;  or  second,  an 
inverse  or  ascending  order. 

Which  of  these  methods  is  that  of  nature?  Does 
the  child  feel  most  interested  in  hearing  accounts  of 
what  befel  his  grandparents,  or  in  learning  the  fortunes 
of  Alexander  or  Caesar?  We  know  that  he  will  take 
a  deeper  interest  in  the  history  of  his  own  ancestors, 
and  of  events  which  have  had  an  important  influence 
upon  his  own  circumstances  in  life.  Pioceeding  then 
upon  this  view  of  the  operations  of  the  mind,  we  would 
recommend  that  the  beginner  should  commence  with 
the  history  of  his  own  age  and  country.  It  would  be  de- 
sirable that  every  child  should  first  be  presented  with 
the  history  of  his  own  town,  then  of  his  own  state,  and 
after,  that  of  the  whole  United  Republic.  This  method 
has  but  recently  been  the  subject  of  discussion  among 
those  who  have  the  charge  of  youth  ;  and  with  the  books 
now  before  the  public,  it  is  not  easy  to  conduct  a  course  of 
history  in  the  manner  above  suggested.  In  this  institution 
we  have  only  pajtially  adopted  it ;  as  Mrs.  Willard's  Amer- 
ican History  is  too  large  for  younger  pupils,  we  still  con- 
tinue to  give  them  the  former  course,  viz.  ancient  histo- 
ry first,  then  modern,  closing  their  historical  studies  with 
the  American  History.*  This  method  is  agreeable  to 
the  order  of  time  ;  indeed  when  a  pupil  commences  with 
his  own  age,  and  country,  and  ascends  in  the  course  of 
time,  he  should,  at  the  last  pursue  the  descending  course, 

*  The  publication  of  the  Abridgment  of  this  History  since  this 
lecture  was  written,  has  obviated  the  objection  above  made,  viz. 
the  want  of  a  suitable  work  for  beginners  on  the  new  plan. 


136  HISTORY. 

as  in  this  way  can  be  taken  a  more  philosophical  view  of 
the  connexion  between  causes  and  their  corresponding 
effects. 

The  term  history  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  histo- 
ria,  and  literally  signifies  a  relation  of  facts ;  thus  we  term 
that  science  which  considers  facts  with  respect  to  the  ob- 
jects of  the  different  kingdoms  of  nature,  animal,  vegeta- 
ble and  mineral,  Natural  History. 

We  are  now  to  confine  our  attention  to  Civil  Histo- 
ry, or  that  branch  which  presents  us  with  a  record  of 
the  characters  and  actions  of  mankind.  Cicero  defines 
civil  history  to  be  '  the  testimony  of  time,  the  light  of 
truth,  the  messenger  of  antiquity ,  and  the  school  of  life.' 
History  is  a  word  of  extensive  application,  but  when 
used  to  signify  a  particular  branch  of  education  it  has  re- 
lation to  the  origin,  progress  and  decline  of  nations,  to 
the  distinguished  individuals  who  have  exerted  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  public  welfare ;  and  to  the  progress  of  lit- 
erature, science  and  arts.  History  is  indeed  something 
more  than  a  knowledge  of  facts ;  it  leads  to  a  considera- 
tion of  those  principles  in  human  nature  which  give  their 
origin  to  the  various  forms  of  society,  from  which  spring 
the  institutions,  laws,  and  usages  of  man  in  his  rudest  as 
well  as  most  polished  state.  History  teaches  the  princi- 
ples on  which  nations  are  founded,  and  points  out  the 
means  of  improvement,  as  well  as  the  causes  of  their  de- 
pravity and  decline. 

But  it  is  the  mind  matured  and  practised  to  judge  of 
causes  by  effects,  that  must  consider  history  under  its 
true  philosophical  aspect ;  by  the  young  pupil  it  must 
be  chiefly  viewed  in  relation  to  events. 

Civil  history  is  either  sacred  or  profane.  Sacred  his- 
tory is  that  which  is  contained  in  the  bible.  To  this  ho- 
ly volume  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the  ori- 
gin of  our  planet. 

'  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heaven  and  the 
earth.5  When  was  this  beginning  ? — This  is  a  fearful  and 
overwhelming  question,  carrying  the  mind  back  to  that 
period  when  the  Deity  existed  alone  in  the  majesty  of  his 
own  glory,  and  the  vast  conception  of  his  infinite  mind 
had  not  yet  become  manifest  in  material  creations. 


HISTORY.  137 

But  matter  must  have  had  a  beginning; — it  could  not 
have  created  itself; — God  must  have  existed  forever, 
for  he  is  the  first  cause  of  all  things,  and  there  is  none 
greater  than  himself.  Nothing  can  be  brought  into  ex* 
istence  without  a  cause  ;  what  then  could  have  created 
God  ?  We  see  that  should  we  attempt  to  go  further, 
and  find  some  power  which  could  have  created  the  Dei* 
ty,  we  must  go  another  step,  and  ask  how  that  power  came 
to  exist,  and  thus  we  might  go  on  ad  infinitum ;  not  in 
any  manner  removing  the  difficulty,  but  multiplying  mys- 
teries at  every  proposition.  This  is  what  the  Pagans 
did  in  their  mythology.  For  although  they  called  Jupi- 
ter the  father  of  gods  and  men ;  they  accounted  for  his 
existence,  by  saying  that  he  was  the  son  of  Saturn ; 
Saturn  was  the  son  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  who  were  the 
children  of  Chaos.  How  Chaos  or  matter,  in  an  unform- 
ed state,  came  into  existence,  the  Pagans,  in  their  wis- 
dom, did  not  attempt  to  explain. 

But  let  us  turn  from  the  clildish  absurdities  of  hea- 
thenism to  the  light  of  revelation.  *  In  the  beginning 
God  made  the  heaven  and  the  earth.5  God  then  has 
existed  from  eternity;  '  he  is  from  everlasting  to  everlast- 
ing, without  beginning  of  days  or  end  of  time.'  Here  I 
would  ask  you  for  a  moment  to  consider  the  language  of 
the  sacred  history ; — was  this  beginning^  the  period  when 
our  earth  began  to  take  its  present  form  1  This  is  the 
belief  of  many,  especially  of  those  who  are  little  ac- 
quainted with  geological  facts,  and  who  have  not  paid 
strict  attention  to  the  import  of  the  language. 

The  opinion  of  others  is  that  the  '  beginning?  was  that 
eventful  period,  when  the  elements  of  all  the  matter 
which  now  exists  in  the  universe  were  brought  into 
existence.  Respecting  what  took  place  after  this  august 
beginning  of  material  existence,  except  as  relates  to  our 
earth,  the  sacred  writings  do  not  inform  us.  The  histo- 
ry of  other  worlds  is  not  known  to  us ;  nor  for  how  many 
centuries  of  ages  they  might  have  been  going  on  to  per- 
fection, before  the  Almighty  thought  proper  to  shape  into 
its  present  form  the  matter  which  composes  our  globe, 
It  seems  probable  that  between  the  fact  recorded  in  the  first 
verse  of  Genesis,  and  that  in  the  succeeding  verse,  a  vast 


138  HISTORY. 

interval  of  time  had  elapsed.  But  the  sacred  historian 
leaves  that  period  as  not  relating  to  man,  and  hastens  to 
speak  of  the  earth.  This,  he  says,  *  was  without  form,  and 
it  was  void,  (or  a  chaotic  mass)  and  darkness  was  upon 
the  face  of  the  deep,  and  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon 
the  face  of  the  waters.'  It  appears  that  this  formless  mass 
was  in  a  fluid  state ;  and  geology  furnishes  abundant 
evidence  to  prove  that  from  such  a  state  our  globe  must 
gradually  have  become  consolidated. 

The  spirit  or  power  of  God  now  operating  upon  this 
chaotic  mass,  from  darkness  produced  light,  and  a 
series  of  changes  at  length  brought  the  earth  into  a  hab- 
itable state.  Man  was  then  formed,  not  of  matter  creat- 
ed newly  for  that  purpose  ;  but  his  body  was  made  of  the 
dust  of  the  earth,  and  animated  by  the  breath  of  the 
Almighty. 

In  the  history  we  are  now  examining,  we  thus  learn  the 
production  of  our  earth,  and  the  origin  of  the  human 
race.  We  find  Adam  and  his  companion,  placed  in  the 
delightful  garden  of  Eden,  favored  with  the  company 
of  angels,  and  personal  communion  with  God  himself. 
But  yielding  to  temptation,  cur  first  parents  disobeyed 
the  commands  of  their  Maker,  and  thus  '  brought  death 
into  the  world  and  all  our  wo.'  Here  we  see  the  origin 
of  evil;  a  subject,  about  which  metaphysicians  have 
been  much  perplexed.  For  the  same  ambition  which 
led  our  first  parents  to  sin,  still  urges  their  descendants, 
to  study  into  things  transcending  their  own  limited 
faculties,  and  to  pass  by  those  simple  records  which  the 
Almighty  himself  has  caused  to  be  written  for  their 
instruction. 

Let  us  now  take  a  rapid  review  of  the  records  of 
our  race  after  sin  had  entered  the  world.  A  brother, 
urged  by  envy  raises  his  hand  against  an  innocent 
brother,  and  for  the  first  time  death  appears  among  men. 
Cain  is  driven  forth  a  vagabond  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth.  It  appears  that  he  built  a  city  called  Enoch, 
after  the  name  of  his  son  ;  this  city  was  probably  nothing 
more  than  a  collection  of  his  descendants  into  one  place, 
where  they  inhabited  rude  and  temporary  dwellings. 

Although   some  *  walked  with  God/  yet  there  were 


HISTORY.  139 

many  who  followed  their  own  evil  devices,  until  wick- 
edness had  so  much  increased  upon  the  earth,  that  the 
Almighty  resolved  upon  the  destruction  of  the  whole 
human  race  by  a  deluge.  Noah  and  his  family  alone 
were  spared,  by  taking  refuge  according  to  divine  coun- 
sel, in  an  ark,  constructed  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The 
deluge  is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  about  U)00  years 
after  the  creation.  The  earth  was  re-peopled  by  the 
three  sons  of  Noah.  Before  the  flood  mankind  lived  to 
the  age  of  several  hundred  years ;  after  this  time  the 
period  of  human  life  gradually  shortened  to  seventy  or 
eighty. 

The  scene  of  the  great  events  which  we  have  now  so 
hastily  sketched,  was  in  Asia.  The  place  where  was 
situated  the  garden  of  Eden  is  not  known ;  for  after  the 
fall,  its  beauty  and  loveliness  disappeared,  thorns  and 
thistles  sprung  up,  and  man  was  obliged  to  gain  his 
subsistence  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow. 

No  records  except  the  sacred  writings  give  us  any  know- 
ledge of  the  history  of  man  previous  to  the  period  of  the 
deluge.  These  writings  were  carefully  preserved  by  the 
Jews.  They  were  the  descendants  of  Abraham,  a  man  es- 
pecially consecrated  by  God  as  the  father  of  a  chosen  race. 
Moses,  the  author  of  the  five  first  books  of  the  Bible,  or 
of  the  pentateuch  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  is  the 
most  ancient  historian  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge. 
Sacred  history,  after  the  deluge  is  mostly  confined  to 
the  Jewish  nation. 

Profcne  history  is  so  called  in  contradistinction  to  sa- 
cred. Of  profane  historians,  the  most  ancient  is  Homer ; 
but  his  relations  are  so  mingled  with  fiction,  that  his  feeble 
light  serves  but  to  manifest  the  thick  darkness  of  the 
period  in  which  he  lived.  His  poems  chiefly  relate  to 
Greece  and  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Trojan  war, 
and  the  exploits  of  Grecian  and  Trojan  heroes. 

The  first  writer  of  profane  history  who  can  be  relied 
upon  is  Herodotus,  who  wrote  after  the  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Xerxes ;  Thucydides  and  Xenophon  appear- 
ed soon  after,  and  these  three  writers  may  be  considered 
as  the  fathers  of  t  Grecian  history.  At  this  period, 
eloquence  was  the  idol  of  the  Grecian  people;  and  as 


140  HISTORY. 

their  historians  read  their  own  works  in  popular  assem- 
blies, they  sought  rather  to  adorn  them  with  the  beauties 
of  style  than  to  give  a  dry  narrative  of  facts :  their  writ- 
ings were  but  a  kind  of  historical  romance,  in  which 
their  own  countrymen  figured  as  heroes,  and  their  own 
country  was  extolled  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of  the  most 
glowing  imagination.  They  were  the  Scotts  and  Coo- 
pers of  ancient  days. 

The  Roman  historians,  Polybius,  Tacitus  and  Sallust 
were  more  philosophical  and  dispassionate.  Livy  was 
richer  in  the  ornament  of  language,  but  less  correct. 
Caesar  wrote  chiefly  of  his  own  wars,  and  described 
military  operations  in  a  more  vivid  and  distinct  manner 
than  any  succeeding  writer  has  done.  Had  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  written  the  history  of  his  own  campaigns,  he 
would  probably  have  equalled  Julius  Caesar  in  concise- 
ness and  vividness  of  language  as  he  did  in  military 
skill  and  unbounded  ambition. 

As  we  descend  to  more  modern  times  we  meet  in 
French  with  the  writings  of  Bossuet,  Voltaire,  &c.  Among 
English  writers,  Hume,  Robertson  and  Gibbon  are  con- 
spicuous. 

Our  own  country,  young  in  its  literature,  already  pos- 
sesses historians  of  acknowledged  merit.  To  trace  our 
history,  from  the  little  band  of  pilgrims  who  first  landed 
on  Plymouth  rock,  through  the  trials  of  our  forefathers 
by  savage  cruelty,  famine  and  pestilence,  and  to  follow  the 
patriots  of  the  revolution  through  their  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence, are  employments  which  have  warmed  the  heart 
and  engaged  the  penvof  many  a  gifted  American. 

But  what,  let  me  ask  is  the  advantage  of  studying  his- 
tory ?  Is  it  necessary  only  that  your  minds  should  be 
stored  with  a  mass  of  facts  ?  that  you  should  know  that  in 
such  a  year  the  pilgrims  landed,  that  in  such  a  year  com- 
menced, and  in  such  a  year  ended  the  revolutionary  war? 
All  knowledge  to  be  useful  must  have  its  practical  ap- 
plication. In  the  character  of  the  New-England  fathers 
we  see  many  noble  examples  of  heroism  amidst  dangers 
and  discouragements.  In  American  history  we  see  many 
Of  our  own  sex  leaving  their  native  country,  nnd  the 
elegancies  of  refined  society,  that  they  may,  in  a  savage 


HISTORY.  141 

wilderness  across  the  distant  ocean  find  a  '  Faith's  pure 
shrine,  and  freedom  to  worship  God.'  From  such  exam- 
ples we  should  derive  important  moral  lessons ; — from  the 
conduct  of  those  who  have  preceded  us,  we  can  gain 
that  most  important  knowledge,  the  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  of  ourselves. 

From  whence  come  wars  and  fightings  ?  Come  they 
not  from  the  evil  passions  of  men?  But  none  of  you  are 
heroes  or  conquerors,  who  would  wade  through  blood  to 
reach  a  throne,  or  post  of  honor  !  True,  but  have  none 
of  you,  some  darling  object  in  the  attainment  of  which, 
you  would  trample  on  the  feelings,  or  wound  the  hearts 
of  your  companions.  Do  you  never  wage  the  war  of 
tongues,  which  often  sting  like  adders,  and  poison  the 
peace  of  a  fellow  being  ?  When  you  read  in  history  the 
fate  of  the  ambitious  and  contentious,  you  should  learn 
from  this,  that  they  who  sow  the  seeds  of  strife  reap 
the  fruit  of  bitterness. 

The  chain  of  historical  knowledge  is  by  no  means  an 
unbroken  one.  There  have  always  been  many  nations, 
ignorant  of  written  language  ;  and  the  historical  re- 
cords of  antiquity  are  far  from  being  all  known  to  us. 
The  histories  of  the  eastern  or  oriental  nations,  Egyp- 
tians, Syrians,  Chaldeans  and  Persians  have  mostly  per- 
ished. The  Greek  and  Roman  histories,  and  the  holy 
scriptures,  contain  all  the  authentic  accounts  of  a  pe- 
riod anterior  to  the  foundation  of  Rome.  The  Roman 
history  is  the  only  one  which  throws  light  upon  a  period 
of  nearly  five  hundred  years  after  Christ.  After  the  fall 
of  the  empire  of  the  west,  the  kingdoms  of  Spain,  France, 
Italy  and  England,  have  each  its  particular  history  ;  and 
about  this  time  commence  the  histories  of  Germany, 
Hungary,  Sweden  and  Denmark. 

Respecting  the  countries  now  Mahometan,  Egypt, 
Syria,  Persia,  and  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  we  know 
little  of  their  history  for  the  last  thousand  years.  The 
Chinese  history  is  chiefly  a  collection  of  fables  and  ab- 
surd traditions.  Of  the  American  Indians  we  have  no 
authentic  history  beyond  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the 
western  continent.  We  see  how  little  then  is  known  of 
the  whole  actual  extent  of  the  globe  during  the  course  of 


4; 


142  HISTORY. 

ages  which  have  passed  since  the  creation.  Yet  there 
are  histories  without  number,  but  it  is  only  by  a  careful 
selection  and  perusal  of  the  best  authors,  that  much  ad- 
vantage can  be  derived  from  them.  In  early  youth,  his- 
tory interests  the  mind  chiefly  on  account  of  the  pleasure 
derived  from  narrative.  As  the  pupil  advances  in  life,  his- 
tory ought  to  be  regarded  under  a  new  aspect,  and  studied 
both  for  the  sake  of  gaining  information  and  forming  the 
mind  to  habits  of  discrimination  and  reflection.  One  who 
reads  history  merely  for  amusement,  or  who  loads  the 
memory  with  facts,  without  regard  to  their  importance, 
or  examination  of  their  causes,  may  read  much,  and 
yet  neither  know  men,  manners,  laws,  arts  and  sciences, 
neither  the  past  or  the  present  world,  nor  the  relations 
which  they  bear  to  each  other. 

A  modern  French  writer*  on  education  advises  the  stu- 
dent in  history  to  make  use  of  books  of  extracts,  in  which 
facts  and  principles  may  be  noted  in  a  definite  and  sys- 
tematic order.  By  this  means,  the  student  will,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  possess  a  collection  of  practical  truths,  and 
of  illustrations  of  principle,  arranged  in  order  and  fur- 
nishing instruction  at  once  solid,  diversified  and  complete. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  proposed  for 
heads  or  titles  of  the  historical  common  place  book. 

1.  Education,  or  the  art  of  forming  the   character  of 
man.     Collect  and  class  as  far  as  possible,  by  age  and  by 
nation,  the  laws,   customs,  and    facts  relative  to  public 
or  private  education,  in  different  ages  and  among  differ- 
ent people. 

2.  Politics  or  the  art  of  rendering  a  people  happy. 
Collect  the  facts,  observations,  laws,  customs,  and  man- 
ners which   appear  to  have  had   an  influence  upon  this 
subject. 

3.  Women — Their  influence  considered  among  all  peo- 
ple and  in  all  ages.     Collect  the  facts,  observations,  anec- 
dotes, portraits  of  characters ;  in  short,  anything  which 
has  had  an  influence,  and  still  has  a  bearing    upon  the 
condition  of  females.     Point  out  the  effects,  salutary  or 

*  M.  Julien,  now  Editor  of  the  {  Revue  EncydopediqueJ  one  of 
the  first  literary  journals  in  France. 


HISTORY.  143 

otherwise,  which  different  modes  of  religion,  education, 
state  of  society  and  manners  have  had  upon  the  con- 
dition ana  character  of  women,  and,  through  them,  upon 
the  whole  human  race. 

4.  Comparison  of  great  men.  Arrange  according 
to  age,  nation  and  rank  the  distinguished  persons  of  his- 
tory. Describe  their  characters,  the  qualities  for  which 
they  were  distinguished,  the  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween them,  the  nature  and  degrees  of  influence  ex- 
ercised by  them  upon  the  age  in  which  they  live,  their 
profession,  and  their  country. 

5.  Religion.  Study  in  different  ages  of  the  world, 
and  among  all  nations,  the  different  characters  of  relig- 
ious belief  and  institutions,  their  influence  upon  human 
character  and  happiness,  the  means  employed  for  their 
support,  and  the  effects  produced  by  them  upon  society 
at  large. 

This  manner  of  reading,  studying,  analyzing,  and  gen- 
eralizing, will  have  an  important  influence  in  forming  the 
judgment,  strengthening  the  memory,  and  giving  enlarg- 
ed and  correct  views  of  persons  and  actions,  with  habits 
of  careful  observation,  and  of  impartial  comparison. 

The  method  above  delineated  is  particularly  recom- 
mended for  your  private  reading,  especially  when  you 
shall  have  left  school,  and  can  no  longer  have  the  advan- 
tage of  hearing  observations  and  explanations  on  the  sub- 
jects of  your  study.  The  same  method  might  be  followed 
with  equal  advantage  in  the  pursuit  of  other  branches  of 
knowledge  as  well  as  history.  It  would  be  advisable  for 
every  young  lady,  after  leaving  school,  to  commence  a 
systematic  course  of  historical  reading.  During  the  pro- 
gress of  school  education,  not  more  than  an  outline  of 
general  history  can  be  given.  This  outline,  however, 
will  be  of  great  importance  in  subsequent  reading.  A 
good  system  of  chronology,  or  classification  of  events  in 
the  order  of  time,  cannot  be  too  early  learned  :  with  this, 
and  an  outline  of  general  history,  the  facts  afterwards 
gained  will  naturally  arrange  themselves  under  their  re- 
spective epochas.  On  the  contrary,  without  a  syste- 
matic arrangement  of  historical  facts,  reading  will  be 
of  little  use. 


144  HISTORY. 

Parents  sometimes  say  they  are  indifferent  as  to  hav- 
ing their  children  study  history  at  school,  as  they  can 
read  it  at  home.  But  history  ought  to  be  studied,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  be  afterwards  read  to  advantage.  It 
should  early  be  associated  with  geography  ;  and  maps 
should  be  drawn  and  used  at  each  day's  recitation. 
As  I  intend  hereafter  to  give  you  my  ideas  on  the  sub- 
ject of  a  choice  of  books  for  reading  after  you  have  left 
school,*  I  shall  not  at  this  time  enter  minutely  into  the 
consideration  of  a  course  of  historical  reading. 

After  becoming  acquainted  with  Scripture  History,  it 
would  be  well  to  read  Josephus's  Jewish  Antiquities,  and 
Rollin's  Ancient  History. 

By  the  assistance  of  these  works  and  the  use  of  an- 
cient maps,  you  will  acquire  correct  and  extensive  views 
of  ancient  history.  Plutarch's  Lives  of  the  illustrious 
men  of  antiquity,  is  a  work  highly  interesting  as  well  as 
useful.  It  not  only  gives  the  history  of  great  men  as 
they  appeared  in  public  and  political  life,  but  shows  their 
private  and  domestic  characters,  and  unfolds  their  secret 
sentiments  and  springs  of  action.  When  contemplating 
the  characters  of  the  great  and  good,  we  feel  the  in- 
fluence and  utility  of  that  principle  of  our  nature  which 
Lord  Kames  has  happily  called  the  sympathetic  emotion. 
We  are  seized  with  the  desire  of  imitating  and  re- 
sembling what  we  admire.  Were  this  sympathetic 
emotion  always  confined  to  virtue,  the  influence  of  bad 
examples  would  be  less  hurtful  to  society ;  but  unhap- 
pily, every  thing  which  the  young  mind  admires,  it  is 
prone  to  imitate. 

A  daring,  and  audacious  courage  always  finds  admi- 
rers ;  and  that  ambition  which  would  wade  through 
blood  to  reach  a  distinguished  post,  seems  grand  and 
heroic.  It  is  however  very  important  that  the  young 
should  learn  to  look  on  actions  and  motives  as  stripped  of 
their  dazzling  accompaniments;  then  will  virtue  and 
greatness  alone,  excite  the  sympathetic  emotion  which 
prompts  the  desire  of  imitating.  Then  will  the  character 

*  This  subject  will  be  treated  of  iu  the  second  volume  of  the 
Lectures. 


HISTORY.  145 

of  the  just  and  benevolent  Trojan  appear  far  more  lovely 
and  desirable  than  that  of  the  aspiring  and  ambitious  Cae- 
sar, and  the  grasping  selfishness  of  Buonaparte  sink  before 
the  generous  magnanimity  of  a  Washington. 

The  Travels  of  Anacharsis  the  Younger  is  a  work 
of  much  merit.  The  author  is  the  Abbe  Barthelemy  ; 
he  who  assumes  the  name  of  Anacharsis  after  the  Scy- 
thian sage  of  that  name,  who  was  ranked  with  Thales, 
Solon,  and  others,  termed  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece. 

Barthelemy,  under  the  name  of  Anacharsis,  supposes 
himself  to  be  travelling  in  Greece  at  the  time  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  and  during  the  youth  of  his  son  Alexander 
the  Great ;  yet  as  the  historical  events  related  and  the  facts 
given  are  all  in  strict  accordance  with  the  truth,  he  is  thus 
enabled  to  present  a  lively  picture  of  the  events  of  that  pe- 
riod. He  carries  his  history  back  to  the  earliest  periods  of 
Greece.  He  lays  before  us  the  laws,  form  of  government, 
customs,  religion,  and  domestic  life  of  the  various  people 
who  composed  the  confederation  of  the  Grecian  repub- 
lic :  he  explains  their  mythology,  gives  the  characters 
and  opinions  of  their  philosophers,  describes  their  poetry 
and  improvements,  in  the  arts  of  painting,  music,  and  sculp- 
ture. You  seem  to  be  transported  to  Greece  in  the  days 
of  her  glory,  and  to  see  before  you  her  beautiful  works 
of  art,  to  hear  the  thundering  eloquence  of  her  ora- 
tors, the  majestic  numbers  of  her  poets,  and  the  wis- 
dom of  her  sages.  After  this  work  should  follow 
some  good  history  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  decay  of  the 
Roman  empire.  The  Roman  historians  you  will  read 
in  pursuing  your  classical  studies,  but  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  many  of  you  will  become  sufficiently  familiar 
with  their  original  language  to  read  it  with  facility. 
Gibbon's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  is  well  writ- 
ten, and  were  it  not  for  the  hostility  to  the  Christian 
religion  which  occasionally  soils  his  otherwise  beauti- 
ful pages,  it  might  be  recommended ; — indeed,  as  it  is, 
there  is  little  danger  that  any  one  educated  and  set- 
tled in  a  religious  faith  should  be  otherwise  affected  by 
his  occasional  sneers,  than  with  pity  for  the  mind  which 
could  thus  blind  itself  to  what  is  most  glorious  of  all  the 
works  of  Almighty  benevolence. 
13 


146  HISTORY. 

Vertot's  Roman  Revolution  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  the  origin,  manners  and  customs  of  that  repub- 
lic; it  exhibits  the  political  agitations  to  which  these 
people  were  subject,  with  their  effect  in  changing  and 
modifying  their  government. 

The  history  of  the  middle  ages  is  well  given  by  Con- 
dillac.  Accustomed  to  reason  with  metaphysical  accura- 
cy, this  philosopher  was  well  qualified  for  a  historian, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  trace  effects  to  their  cause.  He  ex- 
plains the  origin  of  the  feudal  power  or  authority  of  the 
barons ;  the  causes  which  produced  the  institutions  and 
enthusiasm  of  chivalry,  and  its  influence  upon  the 
manners,  morals  and  religion  of  those  days.  He  shows 
the  causes  which  retarded  the  progress  of  science  dur- 
ing that  dark  period,  when  almost  all  the  learning  was  in 
the  hands  of  superstitious  monks,  and  enthusiastic  alchy- 
mists,  and  gives  a  clear  and  interesting  account  of  the 
revival  of  learning  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Although  history  is  usually  divided  into  Ancient  and 
Modern,  it  seems  very  proper  to  consider  that  of  the  mid- 
dle or  dark  ages  under  one  point  of  view.  Middle  Histo- 
ry is  considered  as  including  that  portion  of  time  which 
intervened  between  the  destruction  of  the  western  empire 
in  the  year  700,  and  the  revival  of  letters  at  the  discovery 
of  America  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

Modern  Histories  are  numerous.  Among  the  most 
useful  are  Hume's  England,  Robertson's  Charles  V., 
Voltaire's  Charles  XII.,  Milot's  France,  Raynal's  Political 
and  Philosophical  History  of  the  Indies,  Bigland's  View 
of  the  World,  Marshall's  Washington,  and  Pitkin's  and 
Willard's  United  States. 

There  is  one  view  in  which  history  appears  peculiarly 
interesting  to  females ;  it  is  with  respect  to  the  gradual 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  condition  of  their 
own  sex. 

In  the  garden  of  Eden,  woman  was  cherished  as  the 
tender  friend  and  intelligent  companion  of  man.  We 
have  reason  to  believe  this,,  both  from  the  language  of  the 
Scripture,  '  She  is  bone  of  my  bone,  and  flesh  of  my 
flesh/  and  from  the  perfect  condition  of  man  at  that 
period. 


MYTHOLOGY.  147 

1  For  in  order  that  society  should  exist  in  its  perfect 
state,  woman  must  hold  that  rank  and  exercise  that  influ- 
ence for  which  God  designed  her.  But  alas!  woman 
was  frail,  she  listened  to  the  voice  of  flattery,  disobeyed 
the  command  of  God,  and  influenced  her  companion  to 
become  an  accomplice  in  guilt.  From  that  time,  she  was 
degraded,  and  long  ages  saw  her  a  servile  being,  counted 
with  his  flocks  and  herds  as  the  property  of  man. 

At  length  light  dawns  upon  the  condition  of  this  poor, 
abject  being,  whose  spirit  had  been  bent  and  broken  by 
servitude.  The  voice  of  pardoning  mercy  says,  '  Wo- 
man go  and  sin  no  more.'  The  Saviour  of  the  world 
looks  with  pity  upon  the  suffering  being,  who  clings  to 
him  as  her  friend  and  heavenly  benefactor :  she  follows 
him  with  the  constancy  of  her  nature,  through  evil 
report  and  good  report ;  is  last  at  his  burial,  and  first  at 
his  resurrection. 

Since  those  glorious  events,  our  sex  have  been  honored 
wherever  the  name  of  the  Redeemer  is  worshipped.  Ma- 
ny like  Lois  and  Eunice,  the  grandmother  and  mother  of 
Timothy,  bishop  of  Ephesus,  have  been  the  honored  in- 
struments of  promoting  the  cause  of  true  religion,  and 
their  praise  has  been  heard  in  the  churches. 


LECTURE  XIV. 

Mythology. 

THE  study  of  Mythology,  which  formerly  held  a  high 
rank  in  the  education  of  both  sexes,  especially  in  Europe, 
has  been  superseded  by  more  valuable  sciences.  It  now 
appears  absurd  to  introduce  to  the  young  mind  the  dis- 
gusting fables  of  ancient  heathenism.  Nothing  can  be 
more  injurious  in  its  tendency,  upon  the  glowing  imag- 
ination of  youth,  than  many  of  the  stories  connected  with 
the  Grecian  Mythology ;  and  yet  they  are  so  interwoven  with 
ancient  classicalliterature,  and  so  frequently  alluded  to  by 
modern  writers,  especially  some  of  the  best  English  po- 


148  MYTHOLOGY. 

ets,  that  an  acquaintance  with  these  fictions  seems  neces- 
sary to  those  who  aim  at  a  knowledge  of  general  literature. 
It  becomes  then  important  that  mythology  should  be  puri- 
fied of  its  grossness  as  far  as  possible,  before  a  know- 
ledge of  it  is  communicated  to  the  young.* 

The  term  mythology  is  derived  from  the  Greek  muthos, 
fable,  and  logos,  knowledge.  It  is  a  science  which 
treats  of  the  fabulous  opinions  and  doctrines  of  the  an- 
cients respecting  the  deities,  which  they  supposed  pre- 
sided over  the  world,  or  influenced  its  affairs.  The 
arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  have  done  much  to  immor- 
talize the  Grecian  mythology.  Some  of  the  noblest  speci- 
mens of  ancient  arts  are  to  be  seen  in  the  embodying 
of  mythological  fable;  as  the  famous  statues  of  the  Venus 
de  Medici,  Apollo,  Belvidere,  &,c.  Architecture  has 
also  lent  its  aid  to  perpetuate  this  false  and  absurd  re- 
ligion. Marble  temples  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship 
and  the  most  beautiful  proportions,  were  erected  in  hon- 
or of  the  gods  and  goddesses.  At  Ephesus  was  the  fa- 
mous temple  of  Diana,  at  Athens  that  of  Olympian  Jove, 
and  at  Delphos,  that  of  Apollo.  Within  each  temple 
was  placed  a  statue  of  the  deity,  and  before  this  the  priest 
offered  sacrifice. 

The  Athenians  becoming  tired  of  these  idle  ceremo- 
nies, and  losing  all  faith  in  their  idols,  at  length  erected 
an  altar  to  the  '  Unknown  God.'  Paul  seizing  upon  this 
indication  of  a  willingness  to  be  taught  a  better  faith,  de- 
clared to  them*  (  Whom  therefore  ye  ignorantly  worship. 
Him  declare  I  unto  you.' 

I  will  now  attempt  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Mythology  as  taught  by  the  Grecians,  and  with 
some  modifications  received  by  the  Romans. 

1 .  The  origin  of  the  gods,  and  the  celestial  deities.  Refer- 
ring to  the  beginning  of  all  things,  mythology  supposes 
there  was  a  time  when  only  Chaos  and  Night  existed  ;  they 
were  the  parents  of  Earth,  who  was  the  mother  and  wife 
of  Uranus  (or  Heaven.)  From  Earth  springs  the  hundred- 

*  A  translation  of  Moritz's  Mythology,  published  by  the  Messrs. 
Carvill,  of  New  York,  is  probablv  one  of  the  best  books  for  the 
young  pupil  which  can  be  found  on  this  subject  in  the  English 
language. 


MYTHOLOGY.  149 

giants,  Cottus,  Gyges  and  Briareus,  the  huge,  one- 
-eyed  Cyclops,  Brontes,  Steropes  and  Arges.  The  gigantic 
Titans,  Oceanus,  the  Titanides  (or  female  Titans)  are 
•all  the  children  of  Earth.  Saturn,  the  youngest  of  the 
Titans  marries  Rhea,  and  from  them  descend  Jupiter, 
Vesta,  Ceres,  Neptune,  Juno,  and  Pluto.  Jupiter,  assist- 
ed by  the  Cyclops,  who  prepare  his  thunderbolts,  de- 
^ares  war  against  Saturn  and  his  brethren  the  Titans. 

The  modern  gods,  or  the  descendants  of  Saturn  and 
Rhea,  now  become  distinct  from  the  Titans,  or  ancient 
deities.  War  ensues  between  the  two  parties.  After  a 
conflict  often  years,  Jupiter,  by  obtaining  the  assistance 
of  the  hundred  armed  giants,  becomes  victorious,  and 
hurls  his  enemies  into  the  gulf  of  Tartarus. 

The  ancient  realm  of  the  Titans  is  now  divided  among 
the  three  victorious  sons  of  Saturn.  Jupiter  takes  the 
government  of  the  heavens  and  earth,  Neptune  of  the 
seas,  and  Pluto  of  the  infernal  regions.  The  hundred 
armed  giants  are  appointed  to  guard  the  entrance  into 
Tartarus,  the  prison  of  the  Titans. 

Earth,  indignant  at  the  treatment  of  her  children,  the 
Titans,  brings  forth  a  new  race  to  be  their  avengers  ; 
these  are  the  giants,  who  wage  war  anew  upon  Jupiter. 
The  giants  being  subdued,  Typhon,  another  child  of  Earth, 
and  Tartarus  appears.  The  upper  part  of  the  monster's 
body  was  covered  with  impenetrable  feathers,  and  the 
lower  parts  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  horrible  serpents. 
This  formidable  enemy  is  at  length  conquered  and  se- 
cured under  mount  Etna,  After  this,  two  sons  of  Nep- 
tune, of  immense  strength  and  size  of  body,  attempted 
.to  scale  the  heavens,  by  piling  mountains  on  mountains, 
placing  upon  Olympus,  Ossa,  and  upon  Ossa,  Pelion  ,' 
Apollo  defeats  this  bold  design  by  destroying  the  rebels 
with  his  arrows.  Saturn,  after  his  defeat,  is  said  to  have 
fled  to  Latium,  where  under  his  reign  peace  and  justice 
flourished,  and  the  earth  spontaneously  brought  forth  her 
increase,  this  was  called  the  golden  age.  This  account 
of  Saturn  is  founded  upon  the  supposed  fact,  that  a 
king  of  Latium  built,  near  the  Tiber  upon  the  hills, 
where  Rome  was  afterwards  founded,  a  city  called  Sa- 
ttinia.  Saturn  is  represented  upon  ancient  medallions, 
13* 


150  MYTHOLOGY. 

with  a  scythe  in  his  hand  ;  he  is  a  symbol  of  time  which 
destroys  all  things,  as  he  destroyed  even  his  own  chil- 
dren. 

Prometheus,  a  son  of  one  of  the  Titans,  amusing  him- 
self in  fashioning  a  figure  after  the  image  of  the  gods, 
is  suddenly  seized  with  the  desire  to  perfect  his  work  by 
giving  it  life  and  animation.  Accordingly  he  steals  from 
heaven  a  spark  of  tho  sacred  fire,  by  means  of  which  the 
inert  mass  becomes  endued  with  warmth  and  intelligence  ; 
this  image  he  called  man.  Jupiter,  resenting  this  in- 
fringement of  his  own  creating  power,  orders  Prometheus 
to  be  fastened  to  a  rock,  with  a  vulture  feeding  upon  his 
bowels,  which  as  fast  as  they  were  consumed  continued  to 
grow,  so  that  he  could  have  no  hope  that  his  torments 
would  ever  end.  Pandora  is  sent  by  Jupiter  to  present 
mortals  with  a  box,  containing  all  the  miseries  to  which 
human  life  has  since  been  subject.  Hope  at  the  same 
time  was  given,  to  save  them  from  despair.  Jupiter,  re- 
solving to  destroy  the  race  of  men,  sends  upon  the  earth 
a  deluge,  which  overwhelmed  all  but  two  persons,  Du- 
calion  and  Pyrrha.  Hercules  afterwards  reconciled 
Jupiter  to  Prometheus,  and,  killing  the  vulture,  delivered 
him  from  his  agonies. 

We  see  even  that  heathenism  itself  had  borrowed 
light  from  the  sacred  oracles.  The  wars  of  Jupiter  with 
the  Titans  and  the  giants,  and  their  confinement  in 
Tartarus,  are  analogous  to  the  scripture  account  of  the 
war  against  the  fallen  angels,  and  their  expulsion  to  the 
regions  of  darkness.  The  deluge  of  the  heathens  seem 
evidently  to  refer  to  the  flood  which  God  brought  upon 
the  earth  for  its  wickedness ;  and  Ducalion  appears  to 
be  but  another  name  for  Noah.  Hercules,  who  was  the 
saviour  of  the  world,  delivering  it  from  monsters,  who 
had  power  over  its  inhabitants,  seems  to  be  an  im- 
perfect and  depraved  conception  of  that  Saviour  who 
was  afterwards  to  limit  the  power  of  Satan  upon  earth, 
to  save  man  from  the  agonies  of  the  vulture  sin,  which 
had  so  long  preyed  upon  his  heart,  and  to  reconcile  him 
to  an  Almighty  Sovereign.  And  yet  these  representa- 
tions, analogous  in  some  respects  to  facts  communicated 
in  the  Scriptures,  are  so  obscured  by  gross  arid  palpable 


MYTHOLOGY.  151 

fictions,  that  we  scarce  know  whether  most  to  pity  or 
despise  those  who  invented  and  believed  them. 

Jupiter  is  called  the  father  of  gods  and  king  of  men ; 
he  is  sometimes  termed  Jupiter  Olympus,  from  the  moun- 
tain on  which  he  was  supposed  to  hold  council  with  the 
gods.*  The  top  of  Olympus  was  supposed  to  rise  far  above 
the  clouds,  into  a  region  of  pure  ether;  here  the  gods  sip- 
ped nectar,  and  enjoyed  the  music  of  Apollo's  lyre,  or  con- 
versed upon,  and  determined  the  destinies  of  mortals. 
Jupiter  Ammon  was  worshipped  in  Lybia.  He  is  also 
called  Jove,  and  is  generally  represented  in  antique 
gems,  as  seated  upon  a  throne,  holding  a  sceptre  in  his 
left  hand,  and  the  thunder-bolts  in  his  right,  with  an 
eagle  at  his  feet.  Juno,  the  queen  of  heaven,  the  sister 
and  wife  of  Jupiter,  is  represented  in  ancient  sculpture 
as  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  peacocks,  or  sitting 
upon  the  eagle  of  Jupiter,  having  in  one  hand  a  sceptre, 
and  with  the  other  hand  holding  a  veil  spangled  with 
stars,  which  floats  over  her  head.  The  character  of 
Juno  has  ever  had  too  many  prototypes  among  our  sex; 
beauty  often  inspires  its  possessor  with  the  desire  of 
power  which  destroys  that  softness  and  delicacy  that 
ensure  permanent  affection.  Scornful  and  imperious 
Juno  may  excite  admiration,  but  love  can  be  felt  only 
for  a  character  in  which  there  is  something  gentle  and 
tender ;  thus  Venus,  with  downcast  looks  and  tearful 
eyes,  appears  more  lovely  than  she,  '  who  walked  a  god- 
dess, and  who  moved  a  queen/ 

Stung  with  jealousy  by  the  preference  which  Paris, 
a  Trojan  prince,  gave  to  the  beauty  of  Venus,  Juno  in- 
stigates the  Grecian  states  to  make  war  upon  Troy  ; 
after  a  ten  years  siege  accomplishes  the  destruction  of 
that  city,  and  the  hated  race  of  Priam,  father  of  Paris. 
But  Trojan  JEneas,  the  son  of  Venus  and  Anchises, 
escapes  with  the  remnant  of  his  companions,  and,  after 
suffering  various  ills  '  by  sea  and  land  on  account  of  the 

*  '  Panditur  inter ea  domus  omnipotentis  Olympi, 
Conciliamgue  vocat  Divum  pater  atque  hominum  rex.'— VIRGIL. 

Meanwhile  the  palace  of  all-powerful  Olympus  is  opened,  and 
the  father  of  the  gods  and  king  of  men  summons  a  council. 


152  MYTHOLOGY. 

merciless  anger  of  cruel  Juno,*  he  arrives  in  Italy 
and  lays  the  foundation  of  the  Roman  empire. 't  Even 
sullen  Juno,!  who  through  jealousy,  had  kept  the  hea- 
vens and  earth  and  sea  in  a  tumult,  is  at  last  appeased 
and  becomes  the  friend  of  the  Romans. 

Venus,  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty,  is  sometimes 
considered  as  having  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea, 
and  called  Aphrodite ;  but  among  the  modern  deities, 
she  is  a  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dione.  In  the  charac- 
ter of  Venus,  we  see  beauty  and  softness,  without  wis- 
dom or  force.  Although  aware  of  the  dreadful  ruin 
which  would  fall  upon  the  Trojans,  in  consequence  of 
the  misdeeds  of  Paris,  yet  so  much  did  she  value  her 
reputation  for  beauty,  that  in  order  to  secure  his  decis- 
ion in  her  favor,  she  promised  him  for  a  wife  the  fairest 
woman  upon  earth,  Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  king  of 
Sparta.  Beauty  has  ever  been  the  cause  of  much' suf- 
fering and  folly,  and  will  continue  to  be  so,  until 
females  shall  learn  to  consider  it  as  subordinate  to  wis- 
dom, and  to  be  cautious  lest  they  sacrifice  the  nobler 
aspirations  of  the  heart  to  the  pride  of  external  charms. 

Venus,  attended  by  the  graces  and  her  son  Cupid,  is 
represented  as  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  doves. 
The  famous  statue  of  this  goddess,  called  the  Venus 
de  Medici,  proves  the  perfection  to  which  the  ancients 
carried  the  art  of  sculpture.  Temples  to  Venus  were 
erected  in  Paphos,  Cytherea  and  Lydia. 

Minerva,  the  goddess  of  wisdom  sprung  forth  in  complete 
armor,  from  the  head  of  Jupiter.  Not  being  the  offspring 
of  woman,  she  is  represented  as  devoid  of  female  tender- 
ness, and  the  softer  qualities  of  the  sex.  While  the 
intellectual  powers  are,  in  her  character,  exhibited  in 
their  greatest  perfection,  the  emotions  seem  to  form  but 
a  small  part  of  her  mental  constitution.  She  conducted 

*  'Saevae  memorem  Junonis  ob  iram.' 

t  *  Genus  uncle  Latinum, 
Albanique  patres,  atque  altee  moenia  Romae.' 

From  whence  the  Latin  race, 
The  Alban  fathers,  and  the  walls  of  lofty  Rome. 

\  l  Aspera  Juno, 
Quffl  mare  nunc  terrasque  metu  ccelumque  fatigat/ 


MYTHOLOGY.  153 

wars  and  invented  useful  arts.  She  was  the  friend  of 
Ulysses,  and  under  the  form  of  the  aged  Mentor,  watch- 
ed over  and  counselled  his  son  Telemachus. 

For  a  perfect  female  character,  it  would  be  necessary 
that  the  soft  and  tender  heart  of  Venus  should  be  added 
to  the  judging  head  of  Minerva,  and  the  dignity  without 
the  hauteur  of  Juno.  As  to  personal  beauty,  this  de- 
pends so  much  upon  the  expression  of  mental  qualities, 
united  to  grace  and  dignity  of  demeanor,  that  the  plain- 
est daughter  of  Eve  who  should  thus  unite  sensibility 
wisdom^  and  dignity,  would  appear  beautiful  and  lovely. 

Minerva  is  usually  represented  with  a  helmet  upon 
her  head,  and  in  her  right  hand  a  spear,  and  the  formi- 
dable aegis  or  shield  with  the  head  of  Medusa  in  her  left. 
The, owl,  which  is  sacred  to  her,  is  usually  seen  near  her. 
This  goddess  showed  that  she  was  not  wholly  desti- 
tute of  that  weakness  which  (whether  deserved  or 
not,  you  must  each  judge  for  yourselves)  the  world 
have  persisted  in  ascribing  to  her  sex.  Having  invent- 
ed the  flute,  she  was  one  day  playing  on  this  instrument, 
when  she  perceived  by  the  reflection  of  herself  in  a 
river,  that  the  effect  upon  her  personal  appearance  was 
far  from  being  to  her  advantage ;  upon  this  the  fable 
says,  she  threw  her  flute  away !  Of  all  the  satires  of  the 
ancients  upon  women,  this  is  one  of  the  most  severe. 

Apollo,  in  the  Grecian  mythology,  is  made  to  sustain 
various  characters.  He  is  the  charioteer  of  the  sun,  the 
god  of  music,  medicine,  poetry,  prophecy,  the  fine  arts  and 
archery.  He  is  called  Sol,  Phoebus  and  Helios.  Apol- 
lo and  Diana  were  twins,  the  children  of  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  ;  they  were  born  upon  the  Isle  of  Delos.  Some 
of  the  goddesses  wrapt  him  in  soft  garments,  while 
others  fed  him  with  nectar  and  ambrosia.  He  had  no 
sooner  tasted  the  food  of  the  gods,  than  throwing  off  his 
swathing  bands  he  appeared  as  a  blooming  youth,  and 
exclaimed  ;  '  the  golden  lyre  shall  be  my  joy,  the  carved 
bow  my  pleasure;  and  in  oracles,  I  will  reveal  the  events 
of  futurity/  Thus  speaking,  he  marched  forth  majestical- 
ly and  at  length  arrived  at  the  foot  of  mount  Parnassus, 
from  whence  he  ascended  to  the  mansions  of  celestial 
beings.  Here,  welcomed  by  the  graces,  he  charmed  the 


154  MYTHOLOGY. 

deities  with  the  tones  of  his  lyre,  while  the  muses  re- 
sponded to  his  harmonic  numbers. 

Diana,  the  sister  of  Apollo,  is  represented  by  the  moon, 
as  Apollo  is  by  the  sun.  Three  of  the  goddesses,  Mi- 
nerva, Vesta,  and  Diana,  devoted  themselves  to  celibacy, 
refusing  to  yield  to  the  power  of  Venus,  the  goddess  of 
love.  Diana  is  the  patroness  of  the  chace :  she  was 
usually  represented  by  ancient  sculptors  with  a  bow 
and  arrow  suspended  from  her  shoulder,  and  a  torch  in 
her  hand. 

Mars,  the  god  of  war,  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  ; 
his  characteristics  were  impetuosity  and  courage,  unre- 
strained by  wisdom.  On  complaining  to  his  father,  Ju- 
piter, that  Diomedes,  aided  by  Minerva,  had  wounded  him 
in  a  combat  before  the  walls  of  Troy,  he  was  thus  re- 
proved ;  '  Trouble  me  not  with  thy  complaints,  who  are 
to  me  the  most  odious  of  all  the  gods  that  dwell  on  Olym- 
pus, for  thou  knowest  of  no  other  pleasure  but  strife, 
war,  and  contest ;  in  thee  dwells  the  whole  character  of 
thy  mother,  and  hadst  thou  been  any  other  than  my  own 
son,  thou  wouldst  long  ago  have  been  plunged  deeper  in- 
to Tartarus  than  the  Titans.'  Bellona,  the  sister  of  Mars, 
is  his  charioteer. 

Mercury  was  the  son  of  Jupiter,  and  Maia  the  daughter 
of  Atlas.  He  was  born  in  the  morning,  and  at  noon  leav- 
ing his  cradle,  he  saw  by  the  threshold  a  tortoise,  which 
he  thus  addressed  :  '  Thou  art  now  the  dumb,  but  after 
thy  death  thy  song  shall  be  heard.'  Having  killed  the 
animal,  he  fitted  to  the  shell,  seven  strings,  from  which 
he  drew  forth  sounds  which  so  delighted  him  that  he 
broke  forth  into  praises  of  the  domestic  utensils  about 
his  mother's  dwelling,  until  his  song  soared  at  length 
to  the  sublimest  subjects.  Mercury  was  the  swift  mes- 
senger of  the  divinities,  and  the  god  of  language ;  the 
tongues  of  victims  were  offered  to  him  in  sacrifice.  He 
was  also  the  pattern  of  trade  and  of  cunning  devices. 
The  Greek  name  for  Mercury  was  Hermes,  a  word  sig- 
nifying to  interpret.  It  is  generally  believed  that,  under 
these  names,  divine  honors  were  paid  to  some  person, 
who  in  a  remote  period  of  antiquity  had  enchanted  man- 
kind  by  his  poetry  and  benefited  them  by  useful  inven- 
tions. 


MYTHOLOGY.  155 

Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine,  was  celebrated  by  the  most 
tumultuous  and  licentious  rites.  He  is  usually  repre- 
sented as  followed  by  Silcnus,  an  old  man  seated  upon 
an  ass  and  reeling  with  intoxication,  while  sarcastic 
satyrs  and  sportive  fawns  are  dancing  around  him. 

Vulcan,  a  son  of  Juno,  being  deformed  and  lame, 
was  by  Jupiter,  thrown  from  Olympus  down  to  earth. 
He  was  afterwards  admitted  to  the  assembly  of  the  gods 
whom  he  amused  with  his  awkwardness  and  wit.  He 
was  the  husband  of  Venus,  to  please  whom,  he,  with  the 
aid  of  the  Cyclops,  manufactured  arms  for  ^Eneas.* 
To  him  was  committed  the  business  of  making  Jupiter's 
thunderbolts  :  his  principal  forge  was  under  Mourit  Etna. 

Ceres,  the  goddess  of  corn,  taught  mortals  to  cultivate 
the  earth  ;  she  was  the  mother  of  Proserpine,  whom 
Pluto  privately  seized  and  carried  off  to  the  infernal  re- 
gions to  his  queen,  Ceres  having  learned  the  abode  of 
her  daughter,  obtained  Jupiter's  consent  for  her  release 
from  hell,  provided  Proserpine  had  not  tasted  the  food  of 
those  realms  of  darkness;  but  this,  not  being  the  case, 
she  could  never  be  wholly  restored  to  her  former  com- 
panionship with  the  celestials. 

Vesta  was  worshipped  by  the  ancients,  as  the  deity 
who  presided  over  domestic  comfort,  as  the  one  who 
taught  families  to  gather  around  the  sacred  hearth,  and 
to  prepare  food  with  fire.t  She,  they  believed,  taught 
man  to  build  a  shelter  for  himself  and  those  he  loved  ; 
thus  the  entrance  into  a  dwelling  was  called  the  vestibule, 
and  considered  as  sacred  to  Vesta. 
2.  Marine  Deities.  The  sea  was  made  subject  to  Neptune, 

*  '  Terram,  exercebant  vasto  Cyclops  in  antro, 

Brontesque,  Steropesque  et  nudus  membra  Pyracmon.' 
The  Cyclops  in  their  vast  cave,  labored  upon  the  steel,  Brontes, 
And  Steropes,  and  the  naked  limbed  Pyracmon. 

t  The  domestic  hearth  was  consecrated  toVesta;  thus,  JSneas  : 
'  Cineram  et  sopitos  suscitat  ignes, 
Pergameamque  Larem,  et  candae  penetralia  Vesta, 
Farre  pior  et  plena  veneratur  acerra.' 

^Eneas  awakes  the  embers  and  dormant  fire,  and  suppliant  wor- 
ships his  Trojan — household  god  and  the  shrine  of  ancient  Vesta, 
with  a  holy  cake  and.  full  censer. 


166  MYTHOLOGY. 

the  brother  of  Jupher.  He  was  the  father  of  the  mon- 
strous cyclop,  Polyphemus,*  who  had  been  deprived  of  his 
eye  by  Ulysses.  For  this  injury,  Neptune  pursued  him 
with  his  vengeance,  causing  him  to  suffer  shipwreck  and 
all  the  perils  of  the  sea ;  but  from  these  he  was  preserved 
by  the  aid  of  Minerva.  Neptune  produced  the  winged 
horse  Pegasus.  At  a  certain  time,  he  was  sent  by  his 
master  to  command  the  Muses  to  put  a  stop  to  their 
songs  and  mirth,  which  so  shook  the  surrounding  regions, 
that  Helicon  itself  was  dancing  beneath  their  feet.  Hav- 
ing reached  the  top  of  Mount  Helicon,  Pegasus  execu- 
ted his  commission  by  pawing  violently  upon  the  ground  ; 
whereupon  that  fountain  burst  forth  from  which  poets 
have  since  drank  the  divine  inspiration;  this  was  called 
Hippocrene.  Neptune  is  represented  in  antique  sculp- 
ture, as  holding  in  his  hand  a  trident  or  fork  with  three 
teeth  instead  of  a  sceptre  ;  he  is  drawn  by  sea  horses  ; 
his  son  Triton  is  blowing  a  trumpet  made  of  a  sea  shell, 
and  the  dolphins  are  sporting  around  his  chariot.  Amphi- 
trite  is  the  wife  of  Neptune  and  queen  of  the  sea  ;  she 
appears  seated  in  a  car  shaped  like  a  shell  and  drawn  by 
dolphins ;  the  sea  nymphs  hold  the  sail  which  is  swelled 
by  the  breath  of  Zephyrus  (the  west  wind)  ;  like  her 
husband,  she  holds  a  trident  in  her  hand,  by  which  she 
rules  her  empire. 

Proteus,  a  son  of  Oceanus,  is  the  keeper  of  Neptune's 
seals  ;  he  is  considered  an  allegorical  representative  of 
nature,  assuming  every  variety  of  appearance,  fire,  water, 
animal,  plant,  or  mineral ;,  to  those  only  who  grasped  him 
firmly,  he  revealed  his  real  character. 

3.  Infernal  Regions  and  Deities.  The  dominions  of  Plu- 
to included  both  Tartarus,  the  abode  of  the  wicked,  and 
Elysium,  the  dwelling  of  the  good  and  happy.  The  At- 
lantic Ocean  was  considered  the  boundary  of  the  earth, 
Mount  Atlas  sustained  the  sky  upon  its  broad  shoulders, 
and  near  the  western  horizon  were  the  gardens  of  Hes- 
perides,  with  their  golden  fruits. 

The  river  Acheron  was-  the  passage  from  the  earth  to 

*  '  Monstrura  horrendam,  ingens  informe  ;  cui  lumen  ademptus.' 
A  huge,  misshapen,  horrible  monster ;  to  whom  sight  was  wanting. 


MYTHOLOGY.  157 

the  dominions  of  Pluto,  over  which  Charon  ferried  de- 
parted souls,  and  on  the  opposite  bank  was  the  three- 
headed  dog  Cerberus.  Cocytus,  Styx,  Phlegethon  and 
Lethe  were  rivers  of  Tartarus  ;*  Milton  says  : 

1  Four  infernal  rivers  disgorge 
Into  the  burning  lake  their  baleful  streams  : 
Abhorred  Styx,  the  flood  of  deadly  hate ; 
Sad  Acheion,  of  sorrow  black  and  deep; 
Cocytus,  named  of  lamentation  loud 
Heard  on  the  rueful  streams;  fierce  Phlegethon, 
Whose  waves  of  torrent  fire  inflame  with  rage, 
Far  off  from  these  a  slow  and  silent  stream, 
Lethe,  the  river  of  oblivion,  rolls 
Her  watery  labyrinth,  whereof  who  drinks, 
Forthwith  his  former  state  and  being  forgets, 
Forgets  both  joy  and  grief,  pleasure  and  pain.' 

Pluto  was  called  by  the  Greeks,  Hades  the  Invisible 
or  Unknown.  He  was  sometimes  called  Stygian  Jove. 
At  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  he  was  worshipped  under  the 
name  of  Jupiter  Serapis.  He  was  considered  as  presid- 
ing over  the  dead  and  funeral  obsequies.  The  seizure 
of  Proserpine  by  Pluto  is  considered  an  allegorical  repre- 
sentation of  youth  and  beauty  falling  a  prey  to  sudden 
death.  In  these  gloomy  abodes  Pluto  and  Proserpine  are 
seated  in  that  eternal  and  mournful  silence,  which  is 
characteristic  of  their  empire. 

Plutus  is  the  god  who  presides  over  riches ;  deformed 
and  wretched,  he  is  represented  as  seated  on  a  throne  of 
gold  under  a  canopy  studded  with  precious  gems.  This 
allegory  shows  the  unsatisfying  nature  of  wealth ;  thus 
Milton, 

'  Let  none  admire 

That  riches  grow  in  hell ;  that  soil  may  beit 
Deserve  the  precious  bane.' 

*  '  Huic  via,  Tartarvi  quafert  Jlcherontis  ad  undas  : 
0  Turbidus  hie  CCBHO,  vastaque  voragine  gurges 

Aestuat,  alque  omnem  Cocyto  eructat  arenam 
Portitor  has  horrendus  aquas  er  flumina  servat 
Terribili  squalors  C/taron.' 

Here  is  a  path  which  leads  to  the  waters  of  Tartarean  Acheron, 
here  a  turbid  and  impure  gulf  boils  with  mud  and  vast  whirlpools, 
and  vomits  all  its  sand  into  Cocytus.  A  grim  ferryman  guards 
these  floods  and  rivers,  Charon,  frightfully  squalid. 

14 


158  MYTHOLOGY. 

4.  The  Fates,  (Parcce)  were  the  destinies  who  presided 
over  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  man  ;  Clotho  holds  the  dis- 
taff, Lachesis  spins  the  thread  of  life,  and  Atropos,  with 
the  terrible  scissors,  cuts  it  off. 

The  Furies,  were  Tisiphone,  the  avenger  of  murder  ; 
Megaera  the  wrathful,  and  Alectu  the  restless — -these  are 
frightful  beings,  with  snakes,  instead  of  hair,  and  gar- 
ments smeared  with  blood.  The  Furies  were  so  dreaded 
by  men,  that  their  names  were  seldom  pronounced. 
They  were  supposed  to  pursue  the  guilty  with  never- 
ceasing  tortures ;  thus  Orestes  for  the  murder  of  his 
mother  was  forever  followed  by  their  vengeance. 

5.  Besides  the  Celestial,  Marine  and  Infernal  gods,  the 
ancients  paid  divide  honors  to  a  race  of  Demi-gods,  or 
heroes,  who  had  distinguished  themselves  for  some  great 
exploits  ;  as  Perseus  who  cut  off  the  head  of  the  dreadful 
Medusa,  and  devoted  it  to  Minerva ;  by  her  it  was  placed 
in  the  centre   of  her  shield,  the  mighty  cegis.     Perseus, 
delivered  Andromeda  the  daughter  of  Caseopeia  from  a 
monster ;  these  names  have  been  immortalized  by  being 
transferred  to  the  constellations. 

Bellerophon  signalized  himself  by  the  destruction  of 
the  monster  Chimera  ;  Hercules  was  distinguished  for  ma- 
ny great  acts,  by  which  he  freed  the  earth  from  plagues 
of  various  description.  The  names  of  Theseus,  Jason, 
and  many  other  famed  heroes,  are  recorded  in  the  an- 
nals of  mythology.  Some  of  them  undoubtedly  were 
distinguished  men  of  a  remote  period,  others  are  proba- 
bly wholly  fabulous  beings. 

6.  Too  much  of  our  time  has  already  been  given  to  the 
consideration  of  Mythological  fictions,  and  yet  we  cannot 
close  the  subject  without  noticing  a  class  of  imaginary 
beings,  who  in  the  minds  of  men  seemed  to  form  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  gods  and  men — thesej  were  the 
nine    Muses,    daughters   of  Mnemosyne    (memory)    to . 
whom  their  venerable  mother  imparted  the  treasure  of 
her  wisdom : 

Clio  was  the  Muse  of  history, 
Calliope,  of  epic  poetry, 
Melpomene,  of  tragedy, 
Thalia,  of  comedy, 
Polyhymnia,  of  eloquence, 


MYTHOLOGY.  159 

Urania,  of  astronomy, 
Euterpe,  of  the  flute, 
Terpsichore,  of  the  dance, 
Erato,  of  song. 

7.  The  Sirens  were  represented  as  monsters,  who  ap- 
peared from  the  waist  upward  like  beautiful  females ;  they 
attempted  to  rival  the  Muses,  but  the  songs  of  the  former 
were  false   and   seductive,  while  those  of  the  latter  were 
true,  and  led  to  virtue.     Cupid,  the  son  of  Venus,  was 
the  god  of  love ;  he  was  a  beautiful  blind  boy,  generally 
represented  as  holding  in  his  hand  a  bow  and  arrows. 

8.  The  Graces  were  Aglaia,  Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne ; 
they  were  sent  to  mortals  to  inspire  kind   and  agreeable 
feelings  ;  without  their  aid,  beauty  itself  was  considered 
incapable  of  commanding  homage.     They  were  repre- 
sented as  three  sisters,  who  in  their  various  attitudes,  ex- 
pressed every  variety  of  personal   dignity    and   elegant 
motion  ;  exemplifying  by  their  union  the  tender  emotions 
of  love,  friendship  and  kindness. 

9.  Rural  Deities. — These  were  Nymphs  or   beautiful 
creatures  who  presided  over  the  springs  and  fountains,  the 
forests  and  hills ;  to  each  of  these  was  supposed  to  be- 
long its  living  and  animating  spirit.     The  Naiad  sat  at 
the  fountain  pouring  forth  the  warbling  brook  from  her 
pitcher.     The  Dryads  animated  the  solemn  gloom  of  the 
forests,  and  the  Hamadryed  was  confined  to  her  individ- 
ual tree.     In  the  felling  of  each  tree,  it  was  supposed  its 
wood  nymph  perished. 

10.  The  Satyrs  and  Fawns,  formed  a  connecting  link 
between  man  and  the  brute  creation,  having  the  semblance 
of  a  human  being,  united  to  the  horns  and  feet  of  a  goat : 
they  were  followers  of  Bachus. 

Pan  was  the  principal  of  the  rural  deities.  He  in- 
vented the  reedv,  or  the  shepherd's  flute.  He  was  feared 
by  herdsmen  and  shepherds,  who  ascribed  all  unusual 
inexplicable  sounds  to  Pan  ;  hence  it  is  said  the  term 
panic-struck  was  derived. 

Among  the  Romans  every  family  had  its  tutelary  di- 
vinity. Terminus  was  the  guardian  of  landmarks; 
Pales,  the  goddess  of  shepherds  ;  Flora,  of  flowers  ;  Pomo- 
na, of  fruits;  Comus,  of  wit;  Momus,  of  sarcasm  ;  Hymen, 
of  marriage  ;  Orpheus,  of  music  ;  -ZEsculapius,  of  medi- 
cine ;  Hygeia,  of  health. 


160  MYTHOLOGY. 

Among  the  favorites  of  the  gods  was  Ganymede,  a  de- 
scendant of  Dardanus,  the  founder  of  Troy;  he  was  the 
most  beautiful  of  men,  and  was  chosen  by  Jupiter  to  bear 
nectar  to  the  gods.  Hebe,  the  former  cup-bearer,  having 
been  careless  enough  to  fall  when  performing  this  office, 
was  considered  too  ungraceful  to  serve  at  the  table  of  the 
gods. 

Of  the  thirty  thousand  deities,  said  to  have  been  re- 
cognized by  the  Grecian  Mythology,  we  have  named 
those  who  are  most  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  poets. 
From  the  quotations  we  have  made  from  Virgil,  (and 
these  might  have  been  greatly  multiplied,)  you  will  see 
that  the  ^Eneid,  without  some  knowledge  of  these  fic- 
tions, would  be  divested  of  much  of  its  interest,  and  in- 
deed would  not  be  understood  in  many  of  its  passages. 

Miss  Edgeworth  remarks,  *  Classical  poetry  without  the 
knowledge  of  mythology  is  unintelligible.  Divested  of 
the  charms  of  poetry,  and  considered  without  classical 
prepossession,  mythology  presents  a  system  of  crimes 
and  absurdities,  which  no  allegorical,  metaphysical,  or 
literal  interpreters  of  modern  times,  can  perfectly  recon- 
cile to  common  sense,  or  common  morality  ;  but  our  po- 
ets have  naturalized  ancient  fables,  so  that  Mythology  is 
become  essential  to  modern  literature.  The  associations 
of  taste,  though  arbitrary,  are  not  easily  changed  in  a 
nation,  whose  literature  has  attained  to  a  certain  pitch  of 
refinement,  and  whose  critical  judgments  must  conse- 
quently have  been  for  some  generations  traditional. 
There  are  subjects  of  popular  allusion,  which  poets  and 
orators  regard  as  common  property ;  to  dispossess  them 
of  these  seems  impracticable,  after  time  has  sanctioned 
the  prescriptive  right.' 

Seeing  so  much,  in  the  long  vista  before  us,  which 
must  be  accomplished  in  order  to  redeem  the  pledge  giv- 
en in  the  outline  of  my  Lectures,  I  gladly  turn  from  the 
episode  with  which  I  have  indulged  you,  to  subjects  of 
deeper  interest  than  mythological  fable.  In  our  next 
lecture  we  will  consider  these  studies  which  have  for 
their  object,  the  real  existences,  with  which  the  great  au- 
thor of  our  own  being,  has  surrounded  us. 

How  grand,  how  sublime  do  the  truths  of  revealed 


NATURAL   SCIENCE,  161 

religion  appear  to  us  when  contrasted  with  those  fa- 
bles which  the  heathen  poets  thought  worthy  of  so 
much  pomp  of  language  !  '  I  am  the  Lord,  and  there  is 
no  God  beside  me,'  is  the  language  of  "  the  High  and 
Holy  One  who  inhabiteth  eternity/' — He  needeth  no  long 
train  of  subordinate  agents  to  accomplish  his  purposes  : 
*  He  speaks  and  it  is  done  !' 

'  The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fullness  thereof — It 
is  this  fullness,  those  works  which  their  Creator  pronoun- 
ced '  good,'  th;it,  in  the  study  of  Natural  Science,  we  are 
led  to  examine,  to  analyze  into  their  original  elements, 
and  arrange  according  to  their  various  relations,  and  the 
laws  of  that  most  wonderful  of  the  Almighty's  works, 
the  human  mind. 


LECTURE   XV. 

Natural  Science,  Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy. 

THE  erroneous  opinions  which  have  prevailed  with 
respect  to  education,  appear  nowhere  in  a  more  striking 
light,  than  in  the  neglect  with  which  nature  has  been 
treated,  by  those  who  aspired  to  teach  useful  knowledge, 
and  to  bring  forward  the  young,  fitted  for  the  duties  of 
life.  Books  in  abundance  were  given  the  pupil,  rnd  a 
knowledge  of  their  contents  was  considered  a  sufficient 
preparation  for  the  world  into  which  they  were  about  to 
enter.  How  wonderful  that  the  great  book  of  nature 
should  have  been  passed  unheeded, — that  the  air  they 
breathed,  the  water  they  drank,  the  fire  that  warmed 
them,  the  stones  beneath  their  feet,  the  mountain  masses, 
the  glittering  mineral,  the  flowers  which  they  loved  to 
look  upon,  the  noble  animals  and  the  little  insects,  the 
pearly  treasures  of  the  ocean  and  streamlet — how  won- 
derful that  all  these  should  have  been  deemed  incapable 
of  interesting  the  attention  of  the  young. 

There  have  indeed  ever  been  some  lovers  of  nature, 
14* 


I  ' 

162  NATURAL    SCIENCE. 

some  who  sought  to  penetrate  her  mysteries  and  unfold 
her  laws;  but  the  generality  of  students  in  our  popular 
schools,  have,  it  might  seem,  almost  studiously  been 
kept  ignorant  of  those  mysteries  and  laws ;— ignorant,  of 
their  very  existence.  A  plant  was  seen  simply  as  a 
thing  ornamental,  useful  or  noxious.  The  idea  of  its  rela- 
tion to  other  plants,  to  the  atmosphere,  soil  and  light, 
of  its  being  a  part  in  the  vast  series  of  creation,  never 
was  suggested  during  my  own  school  education  ;  all  sub- 
jects connected  with  natural  science,  being  kept  out  of 
view,  in  female  academies,  as  much  as  alchymy  or  he- 
raldry now  are. 

Natural  Philosophy  in  the  form  of  a  little  catechism, 
was  indeed  introduced,  but  it  was  wholly  a  matter  of  faith  ; 
the  idea  that  anything  contained  in  the  book  could  be 
proved  by  experiment,  could  be  made  manifest  to  our 
ears  and  eyes,  never  presented  itself.  Chemistry  when 
it  first  begun  to  be  taught  in  female  schools,  was  only 
theoretical.  It  was  to  be  sure  a  hard  task  to  learn  by 
heart,  without  the  least  idea  of  their  properties,  such 
names  as  oxygen  and  nitrogen — to  remember  that  air 
was  composed  of  these,  and  that  water  was  composed 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Of  the  real  existence  of 
these  substances  we  had  as  little  conception  as  of  the  mon- 
ster Chimera,  or  any  other  fabulous  creation.  The 
subject  of  chemical  analysis  can  indeed  only  be  compre- 
hended by  the  assistance  of  the  senses. 

At  the  present  time,  Natural  Science  is  receiving  by 
those  who  superintend  the  education  of  youth,  that  at- 
tention which  it  so  deservedly  merits.  The  term  Natu- 
ral Science  signifies  a  knowledge  of  nature,  and  thus 
comprehensive,  it  includes  not  only  the  consideration  of 
all  substances  upon  the  globe  and  the  atmosphere  around 
it,  but  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  This  general  science  of 
nature,  is  also  termed  physics,  a  word  derived  from 
phusis,  nature.  Under  the  head  of  Natural  Science, 
according  to  the  definition  just  given,  may  be  ranked 
its  subdivisions,  Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy,  Chem- 
istry, Natural  History. — Under  Natural  History  are  its 
subdivisions,  Zoology,  Botany,  and  Mineralogy ;  and 
under  the  latter  is  the  subordinate  branch,  Geology. 


ASTRONOMY.  163 

Astronomy.  Astronomy  is  a  term  derived  from  aster, 
a  star,  and  nomos,  a  Greek  word  signifying  name.  We 
have  made  some  allusions  to  this  science  under  the  head 
of  geography,  and  our  time  will  not  permit  us  to  dwell 
with  minuteness  on  each  branch  of  study,  however  inter- 
esting and  important. 

There  is  certainly  no  science  which  seems  more  cal- 
culated to  exalt  the  soul  and  fill  it  with  sublime  concep- 
tions of  the  great  Author  of  nature,  than  Astronomy. 
The  mere  sight  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  regularity  of  their  motions ;  the  uni- 
formity of  the  laws  which  govern  these  motions ;  the  vast 
distances  which  separate  these  bodies,  and  yet  their 
relations  to  each  other ;  the  mere  sight  of  the  heavens 
without  any  knowledge  of  all  this,  is  sufficient  to  inspire 
the  human  soul  with  wonder  and  admiration :  but  when 
science  unfolds  her  discoveries,  then  truly  does  man 
stand  abashed  before  Him  who  '  sitteth  in  the  circle  of 
the  heavens,  who  made  heaven  and  the  heaven  of  hea- 
vens with  all  their  host,  who  preservest  them  all,  and  by 
whom  He  is  worshipped.'  In  the  words  of  an  elegant 
writer,*  a  serious  contemplation  of  the  sublime  objects 
which  astronomy  has  explored,  must,  therefore,  have  a 
tendency  to  inspire  us  with  profound  veneration  of  the 
Eternal  Jehovah, — to  humble  us  in  the  dust  before  his 
august  presence — to  excite  admiration  of  his  condescen- 
sion and  grace  in  the  work  of  redemption, — to  show  us 
the  littleness  of  this  world,  and  the  insignificance  of 
those  riches  and  honors  to  which  ambitious  men  aspire 
with  so  much  labor  and  anxiety  of  mind, — to  demonstrate 
the  glory  and  magnificence  of  God's  universal  kingdom, 
— to  convince  us  of  the  infinite  sources  of  varied  felicity 
which  he  has  in  his  power  to  communicate  to  holy 
intelligences, — to  enliven  our  hopes  of  the  splendors  of 
the  '  exceeding  great  and  eternal  weight  of  glory/  which 
will  burst  upon  the  spirits  of  good  men,  when  they  pass 
from  this  region  of  mortality, — and  to  induce  us  to  aspire 
with  more  lively  ardor  after  that  heavenly  world,  where 
the  glories  of  the  Deity  and  the  magnificence  of  his 
works  will  be  more  clearly  unfolded. 

*  Thomas  Dick. 


164  NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

Natural  Philosophy.  From  the  consideration  of  the 
heavens,  we  descend  to  those  branches  of  the  study  of  na- 
ture which  relate  to  the  globe,  with  the  objects  upon  its 
surface,  and  the  atmosphere  around  it.  Natural  Philoso- 
phy acquaints  us  with  the  general  properties  and  mechan- 
ical laws  of  bodies,  the  physical  laws  of  attraction,  light 
and  electricity  :  it  is  founded  on  observation,  and  experi- 
ment, and  derives  important  assistance  from  mathematical 
science.*  Taking  this  definition  for  our  guide,  we  will 
briefly  consider  some  of  the  many  subjects  embraced  in 
this  comprehensive  science. 

1.  The  general  properties  of  bodies.  Our  knowledge 
of  the  properties  of  matter  depends  wholly  on  our  senses ; 
and  when  we  say  that  it  has  a  certain  number  of  pro- 
perties, we  should  always  consider  that  this  number  is 
only  relative  to  our  senses.  Take  from  man  the  sense  of 
vision,  and  he  would  have  no  idea  of  color  as  a  property 
of  matter;  take  away  the  sense  of  touch  and  muscular 
power,  and  he  would  have  no  conception  of  hardness  or 
softness  as  a  property  of  matter.  So  of  our  other  senses, 
the  loss  of  any  one  of  which  would  abridge  matter  of 
some  of  the  properties  that  we  now  ascribe  to  it. 

But  suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  new  sense  were 
added  to  man :  is  it  not  probable  that  he  would  perceive 
new  qualities  in  matter,  such  as  his  'philosophy  has 
never  yet  dreamed  of?'  We  see  then  how  limited  is 
our  knowledge  of  the  material  world.  The  mind  has  its 
five  servants,  the  senses,  to  labor  in  the  great  work  of 
finding  out  the  mechanism  of  a  world  ;  and  the  sphere 
of  their  operations  is  so  limited  and  circumscribed,  that 
there  are  probably,  in  nature,  kingdoms  and  provinces 
which  they  have  no  power  to  enter,  and  which  are  to 
them  wholly  unperceived. 

How  august,  how  mysterious  appears  the  world  of 
matter  around  us,  when  considered  in  this  light,  and 
how  does  the  enumeration  of  the  few  properties,  which 
our  philosophy  ascribes  to  it,  strike  us  with  a  sense  of 
our  own  limited  faculties,  which  perceive  so  little  of  the 
rich  variety,  the  stupendous  majesty  of  the  eternal 

•  See  the  author's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  p.  11. 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY.  165 

world.  And  yet  we  know  much — for  though  our  list  of 
the  properties  of  matter  be  small,  the  various  respects, 
the  infinite  relations  of  each  one  of  these  properties  is 
truly  astonishing. 

Matter  is  known  to  us  only  through  the  medium  of 
the  mind,  as  affected  by  the  senses.  We  call  that  body, 
matter,  or  material  substance,  which  can  affect  one  or 
more  of  our  senses.  The  sight,  touch,  hearing,  taste 
and  smell,  are  all  called  upon  to  give  the  mind  knowledge 
of  the  existence  of  matter,  and  the  impossibility  of  sup- 
posing an  effect  without  a  cause,  renders  the  existence 
of  the  cause  which  acts  upon  our  senses,  as  certain  as 
the  existence  of  the  senses  which  are  acted  upon.* 

How  far  matter  extends  is  a  subject  on  which  philoso- 
phy is  still  as  much  in  doubt  as  in  the  commencement  of 
her  researches.  Newton  discovered  the  principle  of 
gravitation,  and  on  the  supposition  of  its  existence, 
explained  the  relation  of  the  planets,  and  various 
Other  phenomena  of  nature.  But  what  gravitation 
is,  philosophy  has  not  presumed  to  explain.  The  fra- 
grance of  a  body,  we  know  to  be  minute  particles  of  the 
body  itself,  which,  diffusing  itself  into  the  atmosphere, 
reach  our  organs  of  smelling,  and  thus  produce  a  certain  ef- 

*  Dr.  Brown  supposes  that  of  all  our  senses,  none  but  that  of 
touch,  Lided  by  muscular  action,  could  give  us  an  idea  of  an  ex- 
ternal world.  <  With  no  sense  but  that  of  smell,'  he  says,  i  the 
fragrance  of  a  rose  would  appear  but  as  a  pleasant  feeling,  spring- 
ing up  spontaneously  in  the  mind.  Music,  or  sounds  of  any  kind, 
with  the  sense  of  hearing  only,  would  give  us  no  idea  of  anything 
without  ourselves.  Taste,  separated  from  the  tactual  feeling, 
would  not  suggest  an  external  object;  even  vision,  he  thinks 
would  but  paint  upon  the  retina  of  the  eye  an  indistinct  mass  of 
color  without  figure,  or  without  informing  the  mind  of  the  exist- 
ence of  an  external  object.'  But,  according  to  Dr.  Brown,  the 
muscular  sense  is  the  key  which  unlocks  the  mysteries  of  the 
world  without  us,  and  renders  our  other  senses  of  use.  We  may 
go  along  with  Dr.  Brown  through  the  consideration  of  the  senses 
of  smell,  hearing  and  even  taste ;  but  when  he  would  deny  the 
power  of  unaided  vision,  to  suggest  an  external  object,  we  feel 
that  he  is  drawing  too  largely  upon  our  credulity,  and  suspicions 
being  awakened  of  the  legitimacy  of  his  reasonings,  we  are  inclin- 
ed to  take  back  the  assent  we  yielded  to  the  first  of  his  assertions, 
with  respect  to  the  independent  agency  of  each  sense  in  teaching 
the  existence  of  matter. 


166  NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

fed  on  the  mind,  which  is  termed  a  sensation.  Is  gravita- 
tion a  subtle  yet  powerful  fluid,  emanating  from  one  body 
and  drawing  another  towards  it  ?  Is  it  material  ?  Or 
what  unknown  secret  sympathy  can  actuate  masses  of  in- 
ert matter,  causing  them  to  rush  towards  each  other  in 
a  cold  and  dead  embrace  ?  These  things  are  suggested, 
not  with  a  view  to  confuse  your  rninds,  or  to  lead  you  to 
think  that  all  philosophy  is  but  speculation,  all  science  a 
collection  of  enigmas.  But  there  are  questions  in  sci- 
ence, which  are  vain  and  useless;  questions  that  have 
occupied,  to  no  purpose,  the  time  and  talents  of  those  who 
desired  to  benefit  the  world.  Lord  Bacon  observed,  that 
there  was  more  true  philosophy  to  be  found  in  the  work- 
shops than  in  the  schools  ,•  in  the  former,  all  was  practi- 
cal ;  in  the  latter,  utility  was  sacrificed  to  speculation. 

Yet  there  are  now  certain  principles  established  in 
science  which  are  subject  to  no  fluctuations,  and  which 
afford  a  firm  basis  for  future  discoveries.  Questions  as 
to  the  essence  of  matter,  the  secret  springs  of  the.  ma- 
chinery of  the  universe,  and  thejirst  causes  of  things,  are 
by  common  consent  exploded  as  profitless  and  unfathom- 
able. To  watch  nature  in  her  operations,  to  note  the 
process  by  which  these  operations  are  carried  on,  and, 
from  particular  cases,  to  form  general  conclusions,  is  now 
the  professed  aim  of  men  of  science.  Important  applica- 
tions are  thus  made  of  principles  discovered,  which  tend 
to  advance  the  improvement  and  happiness  of  society. 

The  subjects  embraced  by  this  science  are  numerous, 
and  highly  important.  Mechanics  investigates  the  laws 
of  gravitation,  as  they  operate  in  the  different  phenome- 
na of  motion  and  of  central  forces.  It  considers  the  theo- 
ry of  machines,  the  properties  of  the  mechanical  powers, 
with  the  principles  on  which  they  are  made  to  operate, 
and  the  effects  to  be  produced.  From  this  branch  of 
Natural  Philosophy  have  originated  some  of  the  most 
wonderful  discoveries  and  inventions  which  mark  the 
history  of  man.  Agriculture,  manufactures,  architec- 
ture, navigation,  the  fine  arts,  and  even  the  sciences  them- 
selves, owe  to  mechanical  philosophy  the  instruments  by 
which  they  are  severally  enabled  to  carry  on  their  opera- 
tions. It  is  the  mainspring  in  social  and  civilized  life ; 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY.  167 

and  he  who  discovers  a  new  principle  in  mechanics,  or  a 
new  application  of  a  previously  discovered  principle,  is 
more  useful  to  the  world,  than  he  who  writes  volumes 
of  idle  hypotheses,  however  rich  the  language,  or  fascin- 
ating the  manner  in  which  they  are  communicated. 
'  Happy  he,  whose  name  descends  to  posterity  as  the  au- 
thor of  a  useful  invention,  or  the  discoverer  of  a  new  prin- 
ciple. We  cannot  honor  too  much  the  man,  who  opens  a 
new  career  of  knowledge  to  the  human  mind.  The 
difficulty  of  the  first  discovery  is  always  the  greatest ;  and 
the  merit  of  inventing  is  always  greater  than  that  of  per- 
fecting ;  as  in  total  darkness  it  is  more  difficult  to  strike 
a  light,  than  to  kindle  others  by  the  flame  of  the  first.'* 

The  remaining  branches  of  natural  philosophy,  we 
have  scarcely  time  to  mention.  Hydrostatics,  which 
treats  of  the  pressure  and  equilibrium  of  water,  is  derived 
from  the  Greek,  hudor,  water,  and  stat,  a  derivation  from 
the  Latin  verb  to  stand. 

Hydraulics,  derived  from  hudor  arid  aulos,  a  pipe,  is  a 
branch  of  hydrostatics,  and  signifies  the  science  of  con- 
veying water  by  pipes. 

Pneumatics,  from  pneuma,  air,  and  mathesis,  learning, 
treats  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere. 

Acoustics,  from  akouo,  I  hear,  treats  of  sound,  its  laws, 
and  the  various  phenomena  connected  with  it. 

Optics,  from  ops,  the  eye,  treats  of  vision,  and  the  laws 
which  govern  the  transmission  and  reflection  of  light. 

Electricity  was  so  named  from  its  having  been  dis- 
covered in  amber,  which  in  Greek  is  called  electron. 
This  science  explains  the  operations  of  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  and  all-pervading  principles  in  nature.  The 
electric  fluid  appears  to  be  diffused  as  extensively  as  mat- 
ter itself,  and  to  operate  not  only  in  the  terrific  pheno- 
menon of  lightning,  but  to  be  active  in  some  of  the  most 
silent  and  gradual  changes  in  nature.  Chemical  attrac- 
tion has  of  late  been  suspected  to  be  owing  to  a  union  of 
the  negative  and  positive  electricities,  and  even  the  phy- 
siology of  organized  life  has  been  thought  to  bear  some 
mysterious  relation  to  the  el'ectric  fluid. 

Galvanism,  so  named  from  Galvani,  the  discoverer,  is 

*  Encyclopedic  Portative. 


168  NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 

considered  as  a  modification  of  electricity,  differing  how- 
ever in  this  circumstance,  that  in  the  former,  the  effects 
are  mostly  produced  by  the  chemical  action  of  bodies  up- 
on each  other,  while  in  the  latter,  the  effects  seem  to  be 
more  the  result  of  mechanical  action. 

Magnetism.  This  singular  principle  resides  in  the  load- 
stone, or  the  dentoxide  of  iron.  The  magnet  is  known  by 
its  property  of  attracting  steel  and  iron.  It  is  an  iron, 
composed  of  72  parts  of  metal  and  28  of  oxygen.  A 
fragment  of  this  metal,  if  placed  upon  a  pivot,  always 
points  to  the  north  and  south,  being  always  provided  with 
two  poles  :  opposite  poles  of  two  magnets  attract,  while 
similar  poles  repel  each  other.  The  most  important 
use  of  the  magnet  is,  the  certainty  with  which  it  guides 
the  mariner  through  the  trackless  ocean ;  and  were  this 
the  only  advantage  to  be  derived  from  its  discovery,  the 
benefits  would  be  incalculable.  The  magnetic  fluid  ap- 
pears to  have  an  intimate  connexion  with  electricity  and 
galvanism,  as  those  have  with  light  and  heat :  it  has  been 
suggested  that  all  these  agents  are  but  modifications  of 
one  great  principle.* 

Sketch  of  the  History  of  Natural  Philosophy.  Hav- 
ing now  remarked,  in  a  very  general  manner,  upon  the 
subjects  embraced  under  Natural  Philosophy,  we  will 
glance  at  the  origin  and  progress  of  this  science.  The 
ancient  philosophers  in  their  schools,  considered  without 
any  reference  to  their  different  objects,  the  various  kinds 
of  knowledge.  They  united  natural  with  moral  philos- 
ophy. Their  progress  in  the  latter  science  was  much 
greater  than  in  the  former. 

Thales,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  lived 
four  hundred  years  before  Christ ;  he  was  the  founder  of 
the  Ionian  school.  He  is  the  most  ancient  of  the  Greek 
philosophers  who  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  na- 
ture ;  he  explained  eclipses,  discovered  electricity  in 
amber,  and  made  some  important  experiments. 

*  Electricity,  Galvanism,  and  Magnetism  are  usually  treated  of 
under  the  head  of  Chemistry,  as  well  as  Natural  Philosophy  :  in- 
deed, some  chemists  have  been  led  to  conjecture  that  all  chemi- 
cal decomposition  is  performed  by  the  agency  of  the  opposite 
electricities. 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 


169 


Pythagoras,  one  hundred  years  after  Thales,  in  his 
school  rendered  illustrious  by  the  discovery  of  the  true 
system  of  the  earth,  taught  something  of  the  theory  of 
sounds,  and  other  subjects  connected  with  natural  phi- 
losophy ;  but  as  he  built  theories  upon  hypothesis  and  not 
experiment,  nothing  was  added  by  him  to  the  science. 
He  is  celebrated  for  having  suggested  the  true  theory  of 
the  earth,  afterwards  revived  by  Copernicus. 

Democritus,  four  hundred  seventy  years  before  Christ, 
employed  himself  in  the  study  of  Mechanical  Philoso- 
phy ;  he  suggested  the  atomic  theory  of  bodies;  viz.  that 
all  bodies  consisted  of  certain  minute  parts,  or  atoms, 
which  were  indivisible  ;  these  were  called  ultimate  atoms. 
Democritus  was  considered  as  guilty  of  contempt  towards 
man,  because  he  occupied  himself  more  in  the  study  of 
matter  than  mind.  His  works  being  lost,  all  that  con- 
tinued to  be  known  on  the  subject  of  natural  philosophy, 
was  what  related  to  certain  of  the  arts,  such  as  the  work- 
ing of  metals.  It  was  thought  beneath  the  dignity  of 
science  to  descend  to  what  was  merely  useful.  Plato 
reproached  geometry  for  descending  to  assist  the  neces- 
sities of  man. 

Aristotle,  whose  name  has  for  so  long  a  time  been 
held  in  almost  idolatrous  reverence  by  the  followers  of 
science,  seems  not  to  have  arrived  at  any  general  princi- 
ples by  his  manner  of  investigating.  His  facts  were  in- 
sulated and  incomplete,  and  furnished  no  means  of  gen- 
eralizing ;  indeed  his  metaphysical  ideas  were  averse 
to  generalization.  Thus  we  find  the  progress  of  physics 
retarded  by  false  views  then  entertained  of  the  nature 
of  the  mind.  The  science  founded  on  facts  is  compara- 
tively of  modern  origin  ;  the  laws  of  science  derived  from 
the  comparison  of  well  established  facts,  are  still  more  re- 
cent. 

Archimedes,  of  Syracuse,  nourished  about  two  hundred 
fifty  years  before  Christ.  He  united  to  the  most  pro- 
found knowledge  of  mathematics,  a  close  observation  of 
natural  phenomena,  and  an  uncommon  genius  for  inves- 
tigation. He  discovered  the  manner  of  ascertaining 
the  specific  gravity  of  bodies,  by  weighing  them  in  water; 
experimented  upon  solar  rays  by  concentrating  them  to 
lo 


170  NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 

a  focus,  and  made  many  observations  upon  the  refraction 
of  light.  This  philosopher  seemed  intuitively  to  conceive 
that  the  proper  method  of  philosophising  was  to  collect 
facts,  to  combine  them,  and  thus  establish  general  laws 
— that  afterwards  by  applying  these  laws  to  nature,  a  new 
mode  of  discovery  might  be  obtained,  leaving  it  to  future 
experience  to  prove  the  theories  thus  suggested.* 

After  Archimedes,  no  genuine  priest  of  nature  appears 
in  a  long  career  of  ages  :  as  men  had  before  seemed  to 
want  science,  science  now  wanted  men.  And  until  Bacon 
and  Galileo,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  nothing  of  impor- 
tance was  added  to  physical  science.  Bacon  did  not  in- 
deed add  to  science  by  any  actual  discoveries,  but  he  point- 
ed out  the  mode  by  which  investigations  should  be  con- 
ducted, in  order  that  advances  might  be  made.  Experi- 
ment and  observation,  were  by  him  consideied  the  only 
sure  routes  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  nature. 

Galileo  about  this  time  made  an  accurate  calculation 
of  the  ratio  of  falling  bodies,  giving  the  first  application 
of  mathematics  to  physics.  Torricelli,  the  pupil  of  Gali- 
leo, invented  the  barometer ;  Bayle  invented  the  air 
pump.  The  scientific  societies  of  London  and  Paris 
were  founded,  encouragement  was  offered  for  discove- 
ries, new  works  were  published,  and  at  length  science 
was  enlightened  with  the  discoveries  of  Newton.  The 
methods  of  observation  and  calculation  of  this  great  man, 
have  been  followed  by  later  philosophers,  and  the  study 
and  knowledge  of  his  works  have  been  considered  as 
sufficient  to  entitle  them  to  a  high  rank.  The  influence 
of  this  powerful  genius  in  all  the  sciences  of  observa- 
tion would  be  a  subject  worthy  of  interest ;  if  we  add 
his  own  discoveries,  those  which  he  has  suggested,  and 
the  improvements  which  these  have  produced  in  other 
sciences,  we  can  form  some  idea  of  the  vast  influence 
which  one  great  mind  may  exercise  upon  the  knowledge, 
virtue  and  happiness  of  the  world. 

Since  the  time  of  Newton,  many  important  discove- 
ries have  been  made  in  mechanical  philosophy.  The  arts 

*  For  an  interesting  sketch  of  the  History  of  Physical  Science, 
the  rrader  is  referred  to  a  small  French  work — '  V  Encyclopedic 
Portative.' 


NATURAL     PHILOSOPHY.  171 

of  steam  navigation,  construction  of  rail-roads,  &/c.  are  at 
this  period  effecting  a  change  in  the  future  condition  of 
the  world,  greater  than  we  at  present,  can  conceive  ;  and 
the  improvements  which  may  arise  upon  those  already 
made  are  beyond  the  utmost  stretch  of  imagination. 

Before  closing  our  remarks  on  the  study  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  permit  me  to  remind  you,  that  this  is  em- 
phatically a  science  of  facts.  While  pursuing  it, 
turn  your  thoughts  to  the  real  appearances  of  nature 
around  you,  consider  the  knowledge  of  books  as  no- 
thing, but  as  it  serves  to  turn  your  attention  to  the 
changes  which  are  constantly  taking  place.  If  you  en- 
ter a  mechanic's  shop,  examine  the  implements,  or  ma- 
chinery, with  a  view  to  the  application  of  your  theo- 
retical knowledge.  Do  no!  scorn  to  listen  to  the  most 
simple  account  of  mechanical  operations  ;  they  are  car- 
ried on  by  principles,  which  you  have  learned  from  books, 
and  which  the  mechanic,  though  ignorant  of  science,  un- 
derstands practically.  If  you  are  travelling  in  a  steam- 
boat or  upon  a  rail-road,  make  yourselves  acquainted 
with  the  principles  by  which  the  motion  is  produced  or 
which  are  involved  in  the  construction  of  the  machine- 
ry ;  or  if  you  understand  these  principles,  do  not  fail  to 
notice  whenever  you  see  them  practically  illustrated. 

Our  sex  have,  in  general,  far  less  observation  than  the 
other.  We  in-line  too  much  to  live  in  the  little  world 
of  bur  own  thoughts.  Let  two  young  persons  of  different 
sexes,  unaccustomed  to  travelling,  find  themselves  for  the 
first  time  on  board  a  ship  or  a  steam-boat.  The  female 
probably  occupies  herself  with  thoughts  of  the  friends 
from  whom  she  has  parted,  or  of  those  whom  she  expects 
to  meet ;  memory  and  imagination  are  busy,  but  her 
powers  of  observation  slumber,  unless  perhaps  exercised 
in  noticing  the  dresses  of  those  around  her,  their  pecu- 
liarities of  manners,  and  probable  standing  in  society. 
The  young  man,  very  likely,  examines  the  construction 
of  the  ship,  or  steam-boat,  its  size,  the  velocity  with 
which  it  moves,  and  the  appearances  of  the  different 
natural  objects  which  present  themselves. 

I  am  far  from  asserting  that  there  is  always  this  differ- 
ence in  the  operations  of  the  mind  in  the  sexes  ;  for  there 


172  CHEMISTRY. 

are  females  of  close  observation  upon  works  of  art  and 
nature,  and  men  who  observe  superficially.  The  effect 
of  the  study  of  the  different  branches  of  Natural  Science 
is  to  produce  habits  of  observation,  and  in  this  respect 
as  well  as  their  general  tendency  to  enlarge  the  mind, 
and  to  render  life  more  happy  and  elevated,  they  are 
deserving  the  attention  of  females. 


LECTURE  XVI. 

Chemistry. — History  of  Chemistry. 

THE  science  of  Chemistry  is  of  peculiar  interest  to  our 
sex ;  its  applications  to  domestic  economy  are  numerous 
and  important.  These  applications  are  however  yet  but 
little  understood ;  the  reason  of  this  is,  that  chem- 
ists, are  not  housekeepers,  and  housekeepers  are  not 
chemists.  The  various  processes  in  culinary  operations 
are  mostly  performed  on  chemical  principles,  yet  those 
principles  are  seldom  known  or  thought  of  by  those  who- 
perform  the  operations.  I  am  aware  that  many  a  good 
housewife  might  smile  at  my  remarks,  and  say  she 
would  not  exchange  her  experience  for  all  the  theories 
which  chemistry  can  give.  It  is  very  true  that  your 
excellent  mothers  and  grandmothers  may  possess  that 
experience  in  domestic  concerns  which  enables  them  to 
perform  complicated  operations  with  ease  and  safety; 
but  even  thry,  I  think,  would  delight  to  understand  the 
causes  of  effects  which  they  have  been  for  so  many 
years  witnessing,  and  agents  in  producing. 

For  instance,  no  article  is  in  more  common  use  in 
house-keeping  than  pearlash.  In  making  gingerbread 
this  is  used  to  render  it  light.  The  common  method  is, 
to  put  vinegar  into  the  pearlash,  and  while  it  is  efferves- 
cing, to  add  it  to  the  other  materials. 

But  why  does  pearlash  make  gingerbread  light?  If 
you  were  to  make  this  inquiry  of  many  women,  they 


CHEMISTRY.  173 

would  look  astonished  at  what  they  would  conceive  to  be 
a  *  foolish  question  : '  they  would  say  perhaps,  *  because 
it  is  natural,'  or  '  because  it  does,'  or  because  '  it  is  so 
made,'  &>c.  I  would  not  unnecessarily  expose  a  weak- 
ness of  my  sex,  but  we  are  quite  too  apt  to  give  for  a 
reason,  that  which  is  no  reason  at  all. 

The  simple  explanation  of  the  process  above  men- 
tioned is  this ;  pearlash  is  a  carbonate  of  potash,  or 
potash  united  to  carbonic  acid;  vinegar  contains  a  pe- 
culiar a,cid  called  acetic  acid;  for  this  acid,  potash  has  a 
greater  affinity  than  for  carbonic  acid.  When  vinegar  is 
added  to  carbonate  of  potash,  the  potash  choosing  the 
acetic  acid  of  the  vinegar  begins  to  expel  the  carbonic 
acid,  this  produces  an  effervescence;  the  effervescing 
mass  being  added  to  the  flour,  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
form  of  little  bubbles  of  air,  instead  of  passing  into  the 
atmosphere,  becomes  entangled  in  the  gluten  of  the 
flour,  swells  it  out,  and  thus  makes  the  gingerbread 
light.  The  potash  forms  with  the  acetic  acid  the  new 
combination,  acetate  of  potash. 

When  bread  is  suffered  to  rise  or  ferment  too  long, 
the  acetous,  or  souring  fermentation  begins,  and  the 
dough  becomes  sour.  In  order  to  remedy  this,  a  solu* 
tion  of  pearlash  (carbonate  of  potash)  is  introduced  ;,  the 
acetic  acid  (which  causes  the  sourness,)  is.ahsorbed  by 
the  pearlash  and  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  pearlash  is  set 
free.  This  escaping  in  the  form  of  little  air  bubbles 
increases  the  lightness  of  the  dough. 

You  will  perceive  from  the  examples  now  given,  that 
chemistry  is  a  science  which  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  peculiar  business  of  women.  But  as  I  have 
already  remarked,  the  applications  of  this  science  to 
domestic  operations,  although  numerous  and  important, 
are  yet  far  from  being  as  extensive  as  we  might  expect 
from  the  perfection  which  chemistry  has  attained.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  as  educated  women  engage  in  the 
duties  of  housewifery,  culinary  chemistry  will  receive 
more  attention  than  it  has  heretofore  done.* 

*  A  chemical  text-book  for  female  schools  is  now  in  progress  > 
this  is  intended  to  embrace  all  the  known  applications  of  chemis- 
try to  the  business  of  house-keeping,  in  its  various  branches. 


174  CHEMISTRY. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  general  view  of  chemi- 
cal science,  with  an  outline  of  its  history.  In  doing 
this,  I  shall  refer  to  my  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  which 
contains  articles  prepared  in  accordance  with  my 
present  views  of  the  manner  in  which  these  subjects 
may  profitably  be  presented  to  the  mind.  Where  the 
pupil  already  has  a  knowledge  of  the  science,  such  out- 
lines are  highly  useful  in  condensing  and  systematizing 
what  is  learned ;  when  the  subject  is  new,  sketches 
may  excite  sufficient  curiosity  and  interest  to  lead  the 
mind  to  desire  more  information.  It  was  indeed,  when 
engaged  in  writing  the  articles  for  the  work  above  nam- 
ed, that  the  thought  first  occurred  to  me  of  the  bene- 
fits which  you  might  derive  from  similar  sketches  of  the 
leading  principles,  histories,  and  practical  applications,  of 
the  various  branches  of  study,  which  enter  into  the  plan 
of  education  pursued  in  this  institution.* 

Chemistry  is  a  science  no  less  elevated  in  its  general 
views  than  various  in  its  applications ;  its  object  is  to 
examine  the  elements  orjirst  principles  of  substances  and 
their  laws  of  combinations,  its  application  to  other  scien- 
ces, to  arts,  medicine,  manufactures  and  housewifery, 
are  numerous  and  important.  It  may  be  divided  into 
organic  and  inorganic  Chemistry. 

Organic  Chemistry  is  confined  to  the  investigation  of 
the  elements  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  and 
the  laws  which  govern  their  combinations.  This  depart- 
ment, including  the  whole  of  animal  and  vegetable 
poisons,  and  their  antidotes,  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  study  of  medicine.  The  same  elements,  dif- 
ferently proportioned  and  combined,  constitute  all  or- 
ganic ana  inorganic  substances. 

inorganic  Chemistry  includes  the  study  of  the  ele- 
ments of  all  matter  confined  to  the  combination  of  these 
elements  in  inorganic  bodies.  The  ancients  conceived 
that  there  were  but  four  elements,  or  first  principles,  viz. 
earth,  airtjire,  arid  water.  Chemistry  has  shown  that 
all  these  substances,  except  fire,  ,(the  nature  of  which  is 

*  The  remainder  of  the  Lecture  on  Chemistry  was  taken  from 
the  author's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  published  by  Messrs.  Car- 
will,  of  New  York. 


CHEMISTRY.  175 

still  doubtful,)  are  compound ;  air  is  composed  of  two 
gases,  called  oxygen  arid  nitrogen  ;  water,  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen ;  and  earth  of  a  variety  of  substances,  which  in 
their  turn  may  be  decomposed. 

JNature  offers  substances  in  four  different  states,  solid, 
liquid,  gaseous,  or  aerilbrm,  and  imponderable,  or  such 
agents  as  are  not  known  to  possess  weight.  All  matter 
is  composed  of  molecules,  particles,  or  atoms ;  these  are 
subject  to  two  opposing  laws,  the  force  of  attraction, 
which  tends  to  keep  the  atoms  in  contact,  and  that  of 
caloric,  or  heat,  which  separates  or  repels  them. 

Simple  substances  are  those  whose  atoms  are  homogen- 
eous, or^of  the  same  nature.  Thus  zinc  is  considered  as 
a  simple  substance,  because  it  contains  no  other  atoms 
than  those  of  zinc. 

Compound  substances  are  such  as  contain  two  or  more 
simple  elements ;  thus,  brass  is  a  compound  body,  which 
on  being  decomposed  is  found  to  contain  atoms  of  zinc 
and  copper.  The  particles  which  constitute  a  simple 
body  are  called  integrant  molecules,  and  the  force  which 
keeps  them  together  is  called  cohesion.  The  particles 
which  form  a  compound  substance,  are  called  constituent 
molecules  and  the  force  which  unites  them  is  termed 
affinity.  Thus,  zinc  is  formed  of  integrant  molecules 
united  by  the  force  of  cohesion,  and  brass  is  formed  of 
constituent  molecules  united  by  the  force  of  affinity. 

Affinity.  Affinity  is  that  kind  of  attraction  which 
unites  the  heterogeneous  molecules,  or  atoms  of  compound 
bodies.  A  knowledge  of  chemical  affinity  is  very  impor- 
tant in  investigating  chemical  changes;  the  first  conse- 
quence of  this  law  is  a  change  of  state  of  the  bodies; 
thus  the  union  of  two  gasses,  oxygen  and  hydrogen, 
produces  water.  A  second  and  important  consequence 
is  a  change  of  the  property  of  the  new  substance;  thus 
from  the  combination  of  an  acid  and  an  alkali  possessing 
opposite  properties,  results  a  salt  resembling  neither  of 
the  original  substances.  It  is  at  present  believed  by 
most  chemists,  that  chemical  affinity  depends  essential- 
ly upon  the  electrical  state  of  the  substances,  that  elec- 
tricity is  divided  into  two  fluids :  the  onepositive,  the  other 
negative,  and  that  molecules  of  the  same  kind  of  electri- 


176 


CHEMISTRY. 


300 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


city  repel,   while  those  of  opposite  electricities  attract 
each  other. 

Theory  of  Atoms.  By  atoms  or  particles  are  under- 
stood parts  incapable  of  division  or  diminution  ;  much  pre- 
cision is  given  to  the  science  of  chemistry  by  admitting  that 
bodies  consist  of  atoms  which  unite  in  certain  proportions ; 
thus  in  water  we  suppose  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  united 
to  one  of  oxygen ;  or  which  is  the  same  thing,  two  hun- 
dred atoms  of  the  former  to  one  hundred  of  the  latter. 
The  theory  of  the  proportions  between  the  elements  of 
bodies  is  not  hypothetical,  but  in  many  cases  has  been 
proved  by  experiment ;  thus  the  following  proportions 
are  universally  observed. 

200  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  100  of  oxygen=water. 

300                  "       "                 100  nitrogen=arnmoniacal  gas. 

ammonia           50  carbon=salt   of    ammonia, 

nitrogen            50  oxygen=protoxide  of  nitrogen. 

100  =deutoxide  of   " 

150  =nitrou8  acid. 

250  =nitric  acid. 

Simple  Elements.  The  number  of  simple  elements 
admitted  by  chemists,  varies  with  the  progress  of  the 
science ;  such  substances  as  no  chemical  force  can  de- 
compose are  called  simple ;  many  vvhich  are  thus  named, 
will,  no  doubt,  in  process  of  time  be  decomposed,  while 
other  elements,  now  unknown,  will  be  brought  to  light, 
and  found  to  be  important  agents  in  chemical  changes. 

Instead  of  the  four  elements  of  the  ancients,  chemists 
at  present  admit  more  than  50  elementary  bodies,  if  we 
include  the  imponderable  agents,  chlorine,  and  some 
other  analogous  substances;  and  the  newly  discovered 
bodies,  bromine,  pluranium  and  thorium. 

These  may  be  comprehended  under  two  grand  divi- 
sions ;  1.  Imponderable  agents ,  or  such  as  have  no 
known  weight;  as 

Caloric, 

Light, 

Electricity, 

Magnetism. 

II.  Ponderable  bodies,  or  such  as  have  known  weight ; 
these  may  be  divided  into  four  classes.  Class  1.  Sup- 
porters of  Combustion;  as  oxygen,  &>e.  Class  2.  Com- 
bustibles not  metallic  ;  as  hydrogen,  &c.  Class  3. 


UNr  ^ 

CHEMISTRY.  177 

loids  ;  as  silicon  the  base  of  silex,  calcium  of  lime,  &c. 
Class  4.  Metals;  as  gold,  silver,  &c. 

Language  of  Chemistry.  Among  the  most  important 
chemical  agents  is  oxygen,  the  discovery  of  which 
wholly  changed  the  aspect  of  the  science  and  gave  rise 
to  our  present  nomenclature,  or  names  of  substances. 
The  term  combustible,  considered  as  synonymous  with 
oxygenable,  is  applied  to  all  simple  substances  which  can 
be  made  to  unite  with  oxygen ;  this  union  is  accompa- 
nied with  a  disengagement  of  caloric  or  heat  (though  in 
some  cases  imperceptible,)  and  often  of  light;  the  sub- 
stance which  has  thus  united  with  oxygen  is  said  to  be 
burnt,  or  oxygenated. 

The  compounds  which  result  from  the  union  of  oxy- 
gen with  simple  bodies  have  received  the  name  of  oxides 
and  acids.  When  oxygen  unites  with  a  body  but  in  one 
proportion,  forming  either  an  oxide  or  an  acid,  the  sub- 
stance with  which  it  combines  is  termed  its  radical;  as 
in  the  oxide  of  zinc;  here  zinc  is  the  radical  or  base  of 
the  oxide.  If  the  oxygen  combines  in  two  or  three  pro- 
portions, the  first  oxide  is  called  protoxide,  the  second 
deutoxide,  the  third  tritoxide.  When  a  body  is  oxidized 
in  the  highest  degree,  it  is  termed  the  peroxide ;  for 
example,  the  combinations  of  oxygen  and  manganese, 
which  present  us  with  all  these  varieties  of  oxides. 

A  similar  rule  governs  with  respect  to  the  names  of 
acids ;  if  the  oxygen  forms  but  one  acid,  to  its  radical 
is  added  the  termination  ic,  as  boracic  acid.  But  if  oxygen 
combines  in  several  proportions,  the  lowest  proportion  is 
expressed  by  ous,  and  the  highest  by  ic  as  sulphurous  and 
sulphuric  acids ;  to  these  terminations,  are  also  added 
hyper,  which  signifies  more,  and  hypo,  less ;  thus  hypo- 
sulphurous  acids  denotes  a  body  possessing  a  less  quan- 
tity of  oxygen  than  sulphurous  acid,  &c. 

Oxygen  is  not  the  only  agent  which  unites  to  com- 
bustible bodies  to  produce  acids;  hydrogen,  chlorine, 
with  some  other  substances,  possess  this  property  ;  thus 
we  Lave  hydrochloric  and  hydriodic  acids,  resulting 
from  the  union  of  hydrogen  with  chlorine  and  iodine. 

When  too  binary,*  burnt  substances  combine,  a  new 

*  The  term  Unary  is  derived  from  lis,  two ;  a  binary  compound 


178  CHEMISTRY. 

compound  results,  which  when  the  constituents  are  an 
acid  and  a  metallic  oxide,  is  called  a  salt.  The  salts 
are  very  numerous;  they  are  named  by  varying  the  ter- 
mination of  their  acid;  when  the  acid  terminates  in  ous 
and  ic,  the  salts  end  in  ite  and  ate;  thus  by  the  term 
sulphate  of  tin,  we  understand  the  combination  of  tin 
with  sulphuric  acid ;  sulphite  of  tin  expresses  the  com- 
bination of  the  metdl  with  sulphurous  acid. 

IMPONDERABLE  AGENTS.  1.  Caloric.  It  would  not 
be  possible  to  explain  the  sensation  of  heat  to  one 
who  never  experienced  it,  any  more  than  we  could  by 
words  give  to  the  blind  an  idea  of  colors,  or  to  the  deaf, 
of  sounds.  -  A  person  says,  '  I  am  warm,'  or  extending 
his  hand  to  a  fire,  says  '  thejire  is  hot ;'  in  the  first  case 
he  properly  expresses  the  sensation  of  heat;  in  the 
second,  the  cause  of  this  sensation.  The  fire  itself  is  not 
suppossed  to  be  hot,  but  only~to  possess  the  property  of 
producing  in  the  animal  system,  the  sensation  of  heat. 
The  cause  of  heat  is  distinguished  from  heat  by  the  term 
caloric. 

2.  Light,  as  is  well  known,  proceeds  from  the  sun  and 
the  fixed   stars,  as  direct  sources ;  from  the   moon  and 
other  planets  by  reflection,  and  from  various  terrestrial 
substances,  while  experiencing  combustion  from  phos- 
phorescent matter,  &c.     The  nature  of  light  and  caloric 
is  at  present  unknown ;    from  the  intimate    connexion 
between  them,  they  have  by  some  been  considered  only 
as  modifications  of  the  same  substance. 

Among  the  most  important  properties  of  caloric  are, 
1,  its  tendency  to  an  equlibriu-n  ;  2,  its  power  of  dilating 
bodies ;  3,  its  susceptibility  of  being  reflected  from  one 
body  to  another ;  4,  its  power  of  increasing  chemical 
action. 

3.  Electricity.      From    whence    arises   the   peculiar 
sensation  which  is  experienced   when  a  piece   of  zinc 
placed  upon  the  tongue,  is   brought  in  contact   with   a 
piece  of  copper  placed  under  this  organ?     What  power 
was  that  which,  under  the  eyes  of  Galvani,  animated  the 

IB  one  in  which  but  two  elements  are  united  ;  a  ternary  compound 
consists  of  three  elements  ;  a  quaternary,  of  four, 


CHEMISTRY.  179 

limbs  of  a  dead  frog,  when  two  metals,  placed  at  the 
extremity  of  a  naked  nerve,  were  made  to  communicate 
by  means  of  a  metallic  wire?  What  dazzling  biilliancy 
flashes  in  the  skies,  or  darts  downward  upon  earth, 
fraught  with  terror  and  destruction  ?  It  is  the  electric 
fluid.  But  what  is  the  nature  of  this  fluid  which  divides 
the  material  world  into  two  great  masses,  the  positively 
and  negatively  electrified?  Is  it  simple  or  compound? 
Why  is  its  presence  so  uniformly  accompanied  with  light 
and  heat  ?  Are  light  and  caloric  anything  more  than 
modifications  of  this  fluid,  and  is  not  electricity  indeed 
the  union  of  these  two  substances?  Electricity,  what- 
ever it  may  be  in  itself,  exercises  an  important  influence 
in  chemical  changes.  The  instrument  called  the  voltaic 
pile,  causes  the  decomposition  of  a  compound  body, 
which  is  submitted  to  its  action ;  the  elements  possessing 
the  positive  electricity,  go  to  the  negative  pole*  and 
those  which  have  the  negative  electricity  go  to  the  posi- 
tive pole  of  the  pile. 

4.  The  magnetic  fluid  gives  to  a  mineral  called  the 
load-stone  (deutoxide  of  iron)  the  property  of  directing 
its  two  extremities,  either  to  the  north  or  south  pole  of 
the  earth ;  of  attracting  by  its  northern  extremity  the 
southern  extremity  of  another  magnet,  while  it  repels  its 
northern  extremity  or  pole.  It  has  recently  been  dis- 
covered that  the  magnetic  needle  changes  its  direction 
under  the  influence  of  the  voltaic  pile ;  that  the  con- 
ducting wires  communicate  magnetic  properties  to  steel 
and  iron  wires.  It  has  therefore  been  conjectured  that 
magnetic  attraction  is  but  another  modification  of  elec- 
tricity. If  these  suggestions  are  founded  in  truth,  we 
may  perhaps  regard  all  the  imponderable  agents  as  the 
result  of  one  grand  agent 

PONDERABLE  SUBSTANCES.   ** 

Class  1.  Supporters  of  Combustion.  All  substances 
upon  the  globe  except  those  already  described  under  the 

*  The  two  extremities  of  a  voltaic  battery  are  called  poles ;  this 
instrument  was  first  called  the  Galvanic  battery,  from  Galvani ; 
afterwards,  on  being  modified  by  Volta,  it  received  its  present 
name. 


180  CHEMISTRY. 

head  of  imponderables,  are  known  to  possess  weight ;  the 
specific  gravity  even  of  the  lightest  gases  have  been  as- 
certained. After  the  discovery  of  oxygen,  this  gas  was 
for  some  time  considered  as  the  only  supporter  of  combus- 
tion, or  the  only  substance  which,  by  uniting  with  others, 
could  produce  the  phenomena  of  combustion.  At  present 
four  other  analogous  substances  are  ranked  with  oxygen 
viz.  chlorine,  iodine,  fluorine,  and  bromine.  When  any 
one  of  these  substances,  existing  in  a  binary  compound, 
is  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  voltaic  pile,  the  support- 
er of  combustion  goes  to  the  positive,  and  the  combusti- 
ble to  the  negative  pole. 

1.  Oxygen  unites  with  almost  all  ^substances,  forming 
acid  and  oxide  compounds ;  its  name  is  derived  from  the 
Greek,  and  signifies  to  generate  oxides;  these  and  most 
of  the  acids  being  under  the  influence  of  this  agent.  Its 
properties  are  very  numerous,  since  its  combinations  ex- 
ist in  most  bodies  in  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature.  It 
has  been  observed  by  a  celebrated  chemist,  that  '  Oxygen 
may  be  considered  as  the  central  point,  around  which 
chemistry  revolves.' 

The  phenomena  of  combustion  bear  an  intimate  rela- 
tion to  oxygen ;  so  that  the  slightest  union  of  this  gas 
with  another  substance,  although  neither  accompanied 
with  sensible  heat  or  light,  is  considered  as  a  low  degree 
of  combustion.  Stahl  supposed  that  the  fire  exhibited  in 
combustion  was  occasioned  by  the  loss  of  an  imaginary 
substance,  which  he  termed  phlogiston,  or  the  principle 
of  heat.  Lavoisier  proved  the  materiality  of  ogygen,  by 
showing  that  it  was  absorbed  by  the  burnt  substance  ; 
but  neither  of  them  accounted  for  the  heat  produced  at 
the  moment  of  combustion,  nor  for  the  luminous  appear- 
ance or  flame  which  accompanied  it. 

By  observing  the  usual  circumstances  of  kindling  a 
fire,  we  perceive  that  the  temperature  of  the  combustible 
body  is  first  increased  by  a  borrowed  heat.  Now  it  is 
known  that  electricity  is  developed  by  an  increase  of 
heat,  and  that  a  union  of  the  two  electric  fluids  causes 
an  elevation  of  temperature  :  thus,  when  the  caloric  is 
first  added,  the  two  electricities  are  brought  forth;  the 
negative  from  the  oxygen,  and  the  positive  from  the  com- 


CHEMISTRY.  181 

foustible  substance ;  and  the  union  of  these  two  electri- 
cities is  supposed  to  produce  the  heat  which  attends 
combustion.  When  we  assist  combustion  by  the  action 
of  the  bellows,  we  direct  a  current  of  air  upon  the  com- 
bustible substance  ;  the  oxygen  being  impelled  upon  its 
surface,  the  fire  becomes  more  intense.  By  repeating 
the  action  of  the  bellows,  we  successively  elevate  the 
temperature,  until  the  combination  of  the  two  electrici- 
ties is  sufficiently  energetic  to  give  rise  to  flame.  The 
importance  of  oxygen  as  a  supporter  of  combustion,  is 
manifested  by  various  experiments ; — even  metals  inflame 
and  burn  spontaneously  in  this  gas. 

2.  Chlorine  was  formerly  called  oxymuriatic  acid,  from 
its  supposed  constituents,  oxygen  and  muriatic  acid.     It 
is  at  present,  by  the  French  and  most  English  chemists, 
regarded   as  a  simple  substance  ;  and  muriatic  acid  is 
now  called  hydro-chloric  acid,  being,  as  it  is  supposed, 
a  combination  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine.     Chlorine  may 
be  obtained  by  heating  the  pulverized  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese with  hydro-chloric  acid  ;  the  hydrogen  of  the  lat- 
ter uniting  with  the  oxygen  furnished  by  the  manganese, 
disengages  its  chlorine  in  the  form  of  a  yellowish  green 
gas.     Chlorine  forms  with  oxygen  several  acids,  as  chlo- 
ric, oxygenated  chloric,  &c.     Its  union  with  metals  pro- 
duces chlorides ;  these  dissolved  in  water  are  hydro-chlo- 
rides. 

3.  Iodine,    at  the  common  temperature,  exists  in   a 
solid   form ;   its  color  is  a   bluish  gray ;   by  heat  it   be- 
comes a  violet  colored  gas;   it  forms  with  oxygen,  iodic 
acid,    and    with    hydrogen,   hydriodic    acid;    combined 
with   sulphur  phosphorous,   and   with  metals,   it    forms 
iodides.     Iodine   is   obtained    from    sea-weeds,   mineral 
waters,  minerals  and  sponge. 

4.  Fluorine  is  considered  as  the  base  of  fluoric  acid, 
but  as  its  actual  existence  has  not  been  proved,  it  must 
be   regarded  in   the  light  of  an   imaginary  substance. 
Whether  fluorice  acid  consists  of  oxygen  united  to  the 
combustible  base  fluorine,  or  whether,  as  is  supposed  by 
some,  this  base  is  united  to  hydrogen,  (hence  the  term 
hydro-fluorice,  instead  of  fluorice  acid,)  seems  not  yet 
determined.     This  acid  united  to  lime,  constitutes  the 

16 


182  CHEMISTRY. 

fiuate  of  lime,  or  the  beautiful  Derbyshire  spar :  with 
other  bases  it  forms  various  Jluates. 

5.  Bromine,  which  has  been  recently  discovered  and 
added  to  the  list  of  simple  substances,  is  obtained  from 
sea-water  and  the  ashes  of  the  same  marine  plants  that 
furnish  iodine;  it  is  a  dark  red  liquid,  so  volatile  as  at 
the  common  temperature  to  throw  off  red  vapours  ;  with 
oxygen  it  forms  bromtc  acid,  which,  uniting  with  various 
bases,  forms  bromates  and  bromides. 

Combustible  Substances.  Combustible  substances  are 
such  as  possess  the  property  of  uniting  with  oxygen  and 
other  supporters  of  combustion  to  form  oxides  and  acids; 
they  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

COMBUSTIBLES    NOT    METALLIC. 

METALLOIDS. 

METALS. 

PONDERABLE  SUBSTANCES. 

Class  2.      Combustibles  not  metallic. 

1.  Hydrogen  is  a  term  derived  from  the  Greek,  signifying 
to  produce  water,  because  this  liquid  is  formed  by  the  com- 
bination of  hydrogen  with  oxygen  :   in  the  language  of 
chemistry,  water  is  the  protoxide  of  hydrogen  (or  hydrogen 
with  one  proportion  of  oxygen  ; )  when  another  proportion 
of  oxygen  is  aflded,  it  becomes  a  dentoxide  of  hydrogen, 
or  oxygenated  water.     Hydrogen  combined  with  oxygen 
and  carbon  exists  in   all  vegetable  matter ;   by  the  addi- 
tion of  nitrogen  we  have  the  constituents  of  animal  sub- 
stances.    Hydrogen   forms  acids  known   by  the   general 
name  of  hydracids ;   with  chlorine  it  forms  hydrochloric, 
with   iodine  hydriodic  acids,  &c.  with  sulphur,   carbon, 
&c.,  it   forms   sulphuretted   hydrogen  or   hydrosulphric 
acid,  carburetted  hydrogen,  &c.     It  is  highly  combusti- 
ble, and  burns  with  much  flame,  furnishing,  by  its  union 
with   carbon,  the  gas  used  in  cities  for  lighting  streets, 
shops,  &/c.     On  account  of  its  being  specifically  lighter 
than  atmospheric  air,  it  is  used  for  inflating  balloons. 

2.  Boron,  combined  with  oxygen  constitutes  the  base 
of  boracic  acid;   it  is  by  the  decomposition  of  this  acid 
that   boron  is  obtained,  it   being  never  found   pure  in 
nature. 


CHEMISTRY.  183 

3.  Carbon,  when  pure  and  crystallized,  constitutes  the 
diamond  :  it  exists  in  charcoal  with  hydrogen,  salts,  and 
other  products  of  combustion,  and  may  be  obtained  from 
this  combustion.     Many   attempts   have   been   made  to 
crystallize    carbon,  in  order   to   obtain   diamonds,   but 
hitherto  none   have  been   successful.     With    a  certain 
proportion  of  oxygen,  carbon  forms  carbonic  acid  with  a 
less  proportion  of  oxygen,  the  oxide  of  carbon,  or  carbon- 
ic oxide  gas. 

Carbon  forms,  with  hydrogen,  carburetted  hydrogen, 
or  gas  light ;  with  the  alkalies  it  forms  carbonates,  as 
carbonate  of  lime,  (marble,)  carbonate  of  soda,  &/c.  A 
peculiar  property  of  carbon  is  that  of  absorbing  putrid 
miasmata,  or  gasses  ;  a  knowledge  of  this  fact  has  given 
rise  to  some  important  applications  to  culinary  opera- 
tions, medicine,  &/c. 

4.  Phosphorus  has  received  its  name  from  two  Greek 
words,*  signifying  to  bring  light,  this  substance  being  al- 
ways luminous  in  the  air.      With  oxygen  in  different  pro- 
portions it  forms  phosphoric  acid,  phosphorous  acid,  hy- 
pophosphorous  acid,  and  oxide  of  phosphorrus.     With 
hydrogen   it  forms  phosphuretted  hydrogen,  which  in- 
flames  spontaneously  in    the  air,  producing   the   chal- 
atious,  or  ignes  fatui,  which  appear  about  burying-pla- 
ces  and  marshes.     Bones  and    other  animal-substances 
when  decomposing,  disengage  oxygen,  phosphorus,  and 
hydrogen;   these  united  form  phosphuretted    hydrogen, 
which  being  specifically  lighter   than   the  atmosphere, 
ascends,  and  by  its  spontaneous  combustion  produces 
those  luminous  vapors,  which  the  superstitious  and  igno- 
rant have  referred  to  supernatural  causes. 

5.  Sulphur,    united  to  oxygen,  forms  sulphuric   and 
sulphurous  acids;    these    acids,  united    to    bases,  form 
sulphates  and  sulphites.     With  hydrogen,  sulphur  forms 
sulphuretted   hydrogen,    and    with    the   metals,    various 
sulphurets,  as  sulphuret  of  lead,  &,c. 

6.  Selenium  is  less  known  than  any  of  the  non-metal- 
lic combustibles ;  it  forms  with  oxygen  selenic  and  selen- 
ious   acids  and  the  oxide  of  selenium.     Selenious   acid 

*  Phost  light,  and  phero,  I  carry. 


184  CHEMISTRY. 

forms,  with   bases,  salts   called   selenites ;   selenic  acid; 
orms  salts  called  scleniates. 

7.  Nitrogen*  when  first  discovered  was  called  azotic, 
which  signifies  a  depriver  of  life ;  this  term  appearing 
objectionable,  as  it  is  not  a  direct  destroyer  of  life,  that 
of  nitrogen  has  been  given  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
being,  an  essential  ingredient  in  nitric  acid.  Nitrogen 
combines  with  oxygen  in  five  different  proportions,  form- 
ing 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

Deutoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

Hypo-Nitrous  Acid, 

Nitrous  Acids, 

Nitric  Acid. 

With  hydrogen  it  forms  ammonia ;  with  carbon,  cyano- 
gen ;  with  chlorine  and  iodine,  a  chloride  and  an  iodide, 
The  compound  substance  cyanogen  (signifying  by  its  name 
the  generator  of  blue)  is  the  base  of  prussic  acid  (hydro- 
cyanic acid,)  which,  uniting  to  iron,  forms  the  color 
called  prussian  blue. 

PONDERABLE  SUBSTANCES. 

Class  3.  The  Metalloids,  or  Earthly  and  Alkaline 
Combustibles. 

The  termination  oids  is  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies 
like  or  similar ;  thus  the  term  metalloids  denotes  like 
metals.  The  substances  comprehended  in  this  class  are, 
in  the  strictest  sense,  metals  ;  but  they  differ  from  other 
metals  in  their  string  affinity  for  oxygen,  which  renders 
it  extremely  difficult  either  to  obtain  or  preserve  them  in 
a  state  of  purity.  It  is  but  recently  that  they  have  been 
known  to  exist ;  potash,  soda,  Hme,  &,c.,  were  considered 
as  pure  alkalies,  until  Davy,  by  means  of  the  voltaic  pile, 
decomposed  potash,  and  obtained  a  metal  and  oxygen ; 
the  metal  he  called  potassium  *  thus  it  was  discovered 

*  In  giving  nitrogen  a  place  among  combustibles,  it  must  be 
understood  that  it  is  not  combustible  in  the  common  acceptation- 
of  the  term,  as  it  does  not  lake  fire  upon  being  brought  in  con- 
tact with  a  burning  substance  ;  but  it  is  combustible  in  the  chemi- 
cal sense  of  the  term,  since  it  unites  with  oxygen  and  other  sup- 
porters of  combustion. 


CHEMISTRY.  185 

that  potash  is  not  an  elementary  substance  but  an  oxide 
of  potassium.  Reasoning  from  analogy,  Davy  and  some 
of  the  French  chemists  were  led  to  believe  that  soda, 
lime,  and  other  alkaline  substances,  had  metallic  bases : 
a  series  of  brilliant  and  convincing  experiments  have 
now  established  this  fact.  Metals  of  this  class  seem 
naturally  divided  into  two  sections. 

Section   1.  Earthy  metals,  or  metals  which  are  the 
bases  of  earths ;  these  are 

Silicon,  the  metal  of  Silex, 


Zirconium, 
Aluminum, 
Yttrium, 
Thorium, 
Glue  in  um, 
Magnesium, 

Zirconia, 
Alumine, 
Yttria, 
Thorine, 
Glucina, 
Magnesia. 

Section  2.  Alkaline  metals. 

Calcium,  the  metal  of  Lime, 
Strontium,    "    "    "    Strontiart, 
Barium,        "     "     "  Barytes, 
Sodium,  the  metal  of  Soda, 
Potassium,    "    "   "    Potash, 
Lithium,       "   "   "    Lithia. 

Class  4.     Metals. 

This  class  contains  substances  which  have  in  general 
less  affinity  for  oxygen  than  the  metalloids ;  many  of 
them,  such  as  silver  and  gold,  cannot  be  easily  oxida- 
ted ;  iron  unites  much  more  readily  with  oxygen,  as  maj 
easily  be  perceived  by  exposing  any  iron  vessel  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere ;  in  a  short  time  it  will  be  found 
rusted,  according  to  the  common  term,  but  which  chem- 
ically is  said  to  be  oxidated,  the  metal  having  combined 
with  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere.  Any  article  of  gold 
or  silver  is  not  thus  acted  upon  by  the  atmosphere,  nor 
even  by  water,  which  iron  soon  decomposes,  by  uniting 
with  its  oxygen. 

We  find,  then,  in  examining  the  classification  of 
elements  or  simple  substances, 

16* 


CHEMISTRY, 

Imponderable  bodies,  4 

Supporters  of  Combustion,  5 

Combustibles  not  metallic,  7 

Metals  including  metalloids,  about  40* 

Binary  Compounds. 

Binary  compounds  (from  bis,  two)  are  such  as  are 
formed  by  the  union ,  of  two  simple  substances ;  these 
eompounds  are  of  three  kinds;  1st,  those  which  are 
neither  oxides  nor  acids;  2d,  oxides;  and  3d,  acids. 

The  binary  compounds,  which  possess  neither  the 
properties  of  acids  or  oxides,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
union  of  the  simple  combustibles  among  their  own  class; 
as,  carburetted  hydrogen,  consisting  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen ;  cyanogen,  of  carbon  and  nitrogen ;  Moro-carbon- 
ous  gas  of  chlorine  and  carbon.  Sulphur  with  bases 
forms  binary  compounds,  called  sulphurets.  Steel  is  a 
binary  compound,  formed  of  carbon  and  iron.  Oxygen? 
in  one,  two,  three,  and  even  four  proportions,  forms  a 
great  variety  of  binary  compounds ;  as  with  sulphur  it 
forms  in  the  highest  proportion  sulphuric  acid,  in  a 
lower  proportion  it  forms  sulphurous  acid,  &c.  The 
most  important  acids  are  mostly  binary  compounds. 

With  the  metals,  oxygen  forms  oxides,  protoxides,  &/C. 
There  are  eight  non-metallic  oxides,  viz. 

The  Protoxide  of  Hydrogen,  or  water, 

Peroxide  of  Hydrogen, 

Oxide  of  Phosphorus, 

Oxide  of  Carbon, 

Oxide  of  Chlorine,  or  Euchlorine, 

Protoxide  of  Nitrogen,  or  Exhilarating  Gas, 

Deutoxide  of  Nitrogen, 

Oxide  of  Selenium. 

The  metallic  oxides  are  very  numerous ;  the  peroxide 
of  manganese  is  of  great  importance  in  chemistry,  it 
being  used  for  procuring  chlorine  oxygen,  &/c.  The 
deutoxide  of  iron  possesses  magnetical  attraction ;  it  is 
called  the  load-stone  or  magnet.  The  deutoxide  of 
lead  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  white  lead. 
With  the  earthy  and  alkaline  metals,  oxygen  forms  vari- 
ous oxides ;  as  the  oxide  of  silicon  or  silex,  the  oxide  of 
calcium,  or  lime  ;  the  oxide  of  sodium,  or  soda;  the  oxide 
of  potassium,  or  potash,  &/c. 

*  For  the  arrangement  of  metals  and  their  properties,  see 
Dictionary  of  Chemistry — article  Metals. 


CHEMISTRY.  187 

Acids. 

Acids  are  distinguished  by  a  sharp  and  pungent  taste  : 
they  change  vegetable  blue  colors  to  red,  and  combine 
with  metallic  oxides  to  form  gaits,  or  to  alkaline  oxides 
(as  soda  and  potash)  in  order  to  neutralize  or  be  neutral- 
ized by  them.  It  was  long  believed  that  the  acidifying 
power  was  confined  to  oxygen  :  hydrogen  is  now  sup- 
posed to  possess  this  property  :  thus  the  acids  are  now 
divided  into  oxacids  and  hydracids.  The  oxacids  are 
numerous ;  some  of  the  most  important  are, 

Nitric  Acid,  composed  of  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen, 
Sulphuric  Acid,  "  "  Sulphur  and  Oxygen, 
Carbonic  Acid,  "  "  Carbon  and  Oxygen. 

There  are  four  hydracids,  viz.  hydro-sulphuric,  (usu- 
ally' called  sulphuretted  hydrogen,)  hydriodic,  hydro- 
chloric, and  hydro-selenic. 

Quaternary  Compounds. 

Salts.  Salts  are  compounds  of  oxides  with  acids  :  as 
the  acids  are  binary  compounds,  the  salts  are  of  course 
quaternary  or  quadruple  combinations :  they  are  of  three 
kinds;  1st,  neutral,  presenting  neither  acid  or  alkaline 
properties;  2d,  with  excess  of  oxide ;  3d,  with  excess  of 
acid.  The  salts  are  divided  into  genera,  each  genus 
consists  of  the  combination  of  one  acid  with  various 
oxides,  and  is  subdivided  into  three  series,  neutral, 
super  (over),  and  sub  (under.)  In  all  salts  of  the  same 
genus,  and  at  the  same  degree  of  saturation,  the  quantity 
of  acid  is  to  the  quantity  of  oxide  in  a  uniform  propor- 
tion. 

Genera  of  Salts. 

Borates.  The  most  important  species  is  the  sub-borate  of  soda. 
It  is  found  in  some  lakes. 

Carbonates.  This  genus  is  distinguished  by  being  decom- 
posed with  effervescence,  owing  to  the  escape  of  carbon- 
ic acid.  Among  the  most  important  species  of  this  genus  are 
carbonate  of  lime,  consisting  of  chalk,  limestone,  &c. ',  sub- 
carbonate  of  soda,  commonly  called  soda ;  carbonate  of  am- 
monia,  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  animal  matter ;  car- 
bonate of  iron,  a  valuable  mineral ;  carbonate  of  copper,  of  various 
colors,  as  blue,  green,  &c. ;  carbonate  of  lead  is  white  lead  ;  sub- 
carbonate  of  potash  is  the  potash  of  commerce. 

Phosphates.  In  this  genus  is  the  phosphate  of  lime,  which  forms 
an  important  part  of  the  bones  of  animals,  and  is  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  phosphorus.  Phosphate  of  cobalt,  by  calcining 
with  alum,  forms  a  beautiful  color,  called  Thenard's  blue*. 


188  CHEMISTRY. 

Sulphates.  The  most  common  species  which  exist  in  nature 
are  those  of  lime  and  barytes.  Sulphate  of  Lime  is  gypsum,  or 
plaster  of  Paris.  Sulphate  of  Magnesia  is  Epsonis  salts.  Sulphate 
of  Potash.  Alum  is  a  double  sulphate  of  potash  and  alumine. 
Sulphate  of  Soda  is  Glauber's  salts.  Sulphate  of  Iron,  combined 
with  nutgalls,  forms  ink.  Sulphate  of  Copper  (Deuto)  is  copperas, 
or  blue  vitrol. 

Nitrates.  But  three  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  nature. 
Nitrate  of  Potash  is  saltpetre ;  it  is  of  important  use  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  gun-powder.  Nitrate  of  Bismuth  is  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  pearl  white.  Nitrate  of  Silver  is  lunar  caustic. 

Chlorates.  None  of  this  genus  are  found  native.  It  contains 
the  Chlorates  of  Potash  (oxymuriate  of  potash?)  soda,  lime,  &c. 
Hidro  Chlorates  were  formerly  called  muriates.  When  crystal- 
lized or  dried,  they  lose  the  hydrogen  of  their  acid,  and  become 
chlorides;  these  in  their  turn,  when  dissolved  in  water,  form 
hydro-chlorates.  Hyt 'do-chlorate  of  lime  (muriate  of  lime)  is  of  use 
in  medicine  and  in  chemical  experiments.  Hydro  chlorate  of 
ammonia  is  manufactured  by  the  reaction  of  marine  salt  upon  the 
sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Chlorides*  There  are  many  metallic  chlorides,  as  chlorine 
has  a  strong  affinity  for  metals.  Chloride  of  Calcium  is  distin- 
guished by  having  affinity  for  water.  Chloride  of  Sodium  is 
common  salt ;  its  properties  are  known  in  all  civilized  countries. 
Chloride  of  Soda  has  of  late  been  found  useful  in  removing 
offensive  gases  from  the  atmosphere,  and  preventing  infection 
from  sick  persons  or  dead  bodies.  The  chlorine  is  supposed  to 
decompose  the  noxious  exhalations,  by  uniting  with  the  elements 
of  which  they  consist,  particularly  the  hydrogen.  Chloride  of 
Lime  is  commonly  called  bleaching  powder ;  its  properties  are  not 
unlike  those  of  the  chloride  of  soda.  Chloride  of  Mercury  is  sub- 
divided into  the  It-chloride  (deuto-chloride)  which  is  corrosive 
sublimate,  and  the  proto-chloride,  which  is  calomel.  There  are 
many  other  important  species  in  this  genus,  as  the  chlorides  of 
manganese,  iron,  silver,  &c. 

Hydriodates.  But  one  species  of  importance  is  known,  viz. 
the  Hydriodate  of  Potash. 

Chromates.  The  most  important  species  is  the  Chromate  of  Lead, 
which  is  of  a  beautiful  yellow.  There  are  other  genera  of  salts,  as 
the  nitrites,  sulphites,  phosphites,  &c.,  which  are  formed  by  combi- 
nations of  nitrous,  sulphurous  and  phosphorus  acids  with  bases ; 
the  properties  of  these,  although  in  many  respects  differing  from 
the  salts  formed  with  the  higher  acids,  are  not  in  general  very 
dissimilar. 

The  organic  kingdom  furnishes  an  almost  infinite 
variety  of  important  compounds ;  vegetable  acids  are 
very  numerous ;  the  acetic,  tartaric,  oxalic,  malic,  kinic, 
&c.  are  all  of  use  in  medicine  and  in  the  arts.  Among 

*  The  chlorides,  although  mentioned  here,  are  not  proper  salts; 
they  are  analogous  to  oxides,  iodides,  and  bromides. 


HISTORY   OF   CHEMISTRY.  189 

the  vegetable  alkalies  are  morphia,  the  narcotic  principle 
of  opium,  cinchonia  and  quinia,  extracts  of  the  Peruvian 
bark,  with  many  others.  Oils,  resin,  wax,  alcohol, 
ether,  sugar,  starch,  tannin,  lignin,  and  various  coloring 
substances,  are  all  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Salts  are  formed  by  the  union  of  the  vegetable  alkalies 
with  acids,  as  the  sulphate  of  quinine,  of  morphine,  &/c. 

Amimal  Chemistry  presents  a  new  set  of  compounds, 
as  fibrin,  gelatine,  acids,  and  oils;  it  investigates  the 
compounds  of  all  animal  matter,  as  bones,  teeth,  blood, 
and  the  various  secretions ;  and  traces  all  those  to  their 
final  or  ultimate  elements,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and 
nitrogen. 

Chemistry  takes  a  wider  range  than  any  other  depart- 
ment of  Physical  Science ;  in  the  mineral  kingdom  it 
penetrates  the  hardest  materials,  and  inquires  into  the 
nature  of  their  elementary  constituents.  In  the  vegeta- 
ble substances,  chemistry  with  scrutinizing  glance  de- 
tects their  medicinal  and  nutritious  qualities :  do  these 
require  to  be  separated  from  their  various  combinations, 
this  almost  magic  art  can  disentangle  and  set  them  free. 
In  the  animal  kingdom,  chemistry  performs  a  high  and 
solemn  office,  teaching  proud  man  himself,  that  his  own 
material  frame,  beautiful  in  its  aspect  and  noble  in  its 
bearing,  is  in  truth  but  a  compound  of  a  few  simple 
elements,  which,  as  they  have  previously  existed  in  other 
combinations,  will  again  be  dissipated  to  become  parts 
of  the  worm  that  '  feeds  sweetly  '  upon  the  decaying 
body,  and  of  the  noisome  weed  or  lowly  plant,  that  springs 
from  the  soil  which  covers  his  earthly  remains. 


History  of  Chemistry. 

The  term  chemistry  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  Greek  word  kemia,  or  the  Arabian  chamia, 
which  signify  to  burn  ;  and  that  this  science  at  first 
signified  the  examining  of  substances  by  fire.  By  others, 
the  word  chemistry  is  supposed  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Egyptians  in  a  sense  equivalent  to  the  present  meaning 
of  the  term  Natural  Philosophy.  Science  among  the 


190  HISTORY    OF    CHEMISTRY. 

Egyptians,  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to  the  wise  men, 
or  magi,  who  carefully  concealed  their  knowledge  from 
the  people.  Plutarch  supposes  that  the  study  of  nature, 
for  this  reason,  was  called  chemistry,  which  word  in  his 
opinion  signified  the  secret  science.  Whatever  might 
have  been  the  degree  of  knowledge  of  nature  possessed 
by  the  Egyptians,  they  were  probably  acquainted  with 
the  most  important  facts  on  which  the  science  of  chem- 
istry is  founded. 

The  Israelites  gained  from  the  Egyptians  some  know- 
ledge of  the  art  of  working  metals,  and  of  dyeing  red, 
blue,  purple  and  scarlet.  The  Phoenicians  are  supposed 
to  have  understood  the  manufacture  of  glass,  perfumes, 
and  imitations  of  precious  stones.  This  knowledge  was 
successfully  communicated  to  the  Carthaginians  and 
Greeks,  and  by  them  to  the  Romans ;  the  two  latter 
people  seem,  however,  to  have  possessed  but  a  very  limit- 
ed knowledge  of  any  chemical  operations,  or  any  branch 
of  analytical  science.  Plato  seemed  sensible  of  this  when 
he  makes  an  Egyptian  priest  say  to  Solon,  '  You  Greeks 
will  be  always  children  ;  for  you  have  neither  the  an- 
tiquity of  knowledge,  nor  the  knowledge  of  antiquity.' 
The  religious  belief  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  may 
afford  some  excuse  for  their  ignorance  of  nature :  who 
among  them  would  have  dared  to  take  water  from  a 
fountain  or  a  river,  and  decompose  it  by  fire?  They 
would  consider  it  as  a  sacrilege  against  the  Naiad,  or 
the  protecting  divinity  of  the  stream :  the  grand  priest 
would  have  exclaimed  against  the  impious  wretch,  and 
the  people  in  their  indignation  would  have  torn  him  to 
pieces. 

Although  the  Egyptians  were  idolaters,  yet  less  imagin- 
ation was  mingled  with  their  religious  belief;  and  free 
from  many  of  the  superstitions  which  kept  other  nations 
in  intellectual  bondage,  they  dared  to  look  into  the 
secrets  of  nature.  Pliny  the  elder,  places  the  Egyptians 
as  first  in  the  knowledge  of  the  sciences.  Democritus  of 
Thrace,  who  flourished  500  B.  C.  travelled  into  Chal- 
dea,  Persia  and  Egypt:  in  the  last  country  he  gained  a 
knowledge  of  chemistry  that  appeared  to  Pliny  almost 
super-human ;  and  yet  this  classical  and  venerable  land 


HISTORY    OF    CHEMISTRY.  191 

has  transmitted  to  us  scarce  a  vestige  of  any  discoveries ! 
But  we  cease  to  be  surprised  at  this,  when  we  reflect  that 
the  library  of  Alexandria,  which  contained  their  treas- 
ures of  knowledge,  was  successively  destroyed  by  the 
victorious  Romans  and  Mahometans. 

Science,  driven  from  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome,  in  the 
4th  century,;  took  refuge  in  Arabia,  and  chemistry  ap- 
peared under  the  name  of  Alchemy. 

The  alchemists  imagined  that  gold  existed  in  all 
metals ;  and  it  was  their  great  object  to  ascertain  the 
manner  in  which  it  might  be  separated  from  its  combi- 
nations, and  obtained  pure  :  they  expected  to  find  some 
substance  which  would  enable  them  to  perform  this 
great  operation  :  this  imaginary  substance,  which  some 
pretended  to  have  discovered,  was  called  the  philosopher's 
stone.  Those  who  studied  alchemy  pretended  to  great 
secrecy,  affirming  that  some  heavy  calamity  would  fall 
upon  any  one  who  should  reveal  the  principles  of  the 
science ;  keeping  themselves  separate  from  the  world, 
they  invented  mysterious  characters,  by  which  the  initiat- 
ed could  hold  correspondence  without  danger  of  dis- 
covery. 

Among  the  alchemists,  notwithstanding  the  folly  of 
their  pursuit,  and  the  baseness  of  their  deceptions,  we 
find  the  names  of  a  few  distinguished  for  talents  and 
learning.  Albert  the  Great,  a  German,  who  lived  in  the 
12th  century,  wrote  a  work  upon  alchemy,  in  which  he 
described  the  chemical  process  then  in  use.  His  trea- 
tise on  metals  was  written  with  clearness,  and  showed  a 
mind  familiar  with  many  of  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
His  countrymen  astonished  at  the  extent  of  his  know- 
ledge, accused  him  of  magic,  and  threw  him  into  prison. 
His  pupil,  Thomas  Aquinus,  wrote  upon  alchemy,  and 
for  the  first  time  the  word  amalgam  was  introduced  into 
chemistry.  In  his  writings,  astrology  and  alchemy  were 
united. 

In  England,  contemporary  with  Albert  the  Great,  was 
Roger  Bacon,,  the  most  enlightened  and  judicious  of  all 
the  alchemists.  In  his  treatise  *  De  mirabili  potestate 
artis  et  natural  (the  wonderful  power  of  art  and 
nature,)  he  protested  against  the  foolish  belief  in  magic, 


192  HISTORY    OF    CHEMISTRY. 

charms,  and  necromancy ;  he  asserted  that  superstition 
tyrannized  over  the  human  mind  through  ignorance  of 
natural  phenomena.  He  was  acquainted  with  the 
camera  obscura,  telescope,  and  the  use  of  gun-powder. 
Notwithstanding  he  carefully  concealed  his  labors,  he 
was  accused  of  magic,  and  imprisoned.  Raymond  Lulty 
treated  of  the  preparations  of  acids  and  phosphorus. 

About  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  Arnold  de  Villa 
Nova,  a  physician,  consulted  by  kings  and  popes,  direct- 
ed alcohol  and  the  oil  of  turpentine  to  be  used  in  medi 
cinal  preparations.  John  and  Isaac  Holland  published 
several  treatises  on  chemistry,  with  plates  representing 
the  apparatus  which  they  used.  They  made  experi- 
ments upon  human  blood,  which  have  aided  the  most 
recent  discoveries.  They  invented  the  art  of  enamelling 
and  coloring  glass  and  precious  stones. 

Basil  Valentine,  a  German  monk,  taught  that  all  sub- 
stances were  composed  of  salt,  sulphur  and  mercury : 
he  was  the  first  who  applied  chemistry  to  medicine. 
The  most  important  of  his  works  was  called  *  Currus 
Triwnphalis  Antimonii,'  (triumphal  chariot  of  anti- 
mony ; )  in  this  he  gave  such  an  account  of  his  experi- 
ments with  this  metal,  as  excited  an  interest  among  all 
the  physicians  of  Europe. 

An  opinion  had  long  prevailed  among  the  alchemists 
that  a  medicine  might  be  discovered  which  should  be  an 
universal  cure  or  panacea  *  for  all  diseases ;  some 
asserted  that  this  could  be  found  in  the  philosopher's 
stone,  which  not  only  converted  metals  into  gold,  but, 
among  other  extraordinary  virtues,  possessed  the  power 
of  rendering  man  immortal  upon  the  earth. 

Of  all  the  alchemists,  none  appear  to  have  pretended 
to  so  many  discoveries  asParcaelsus,  a  native  of  Switzer- 
land, born  in  1493.  He  confidently  boasted  that  he  was 
in  possession  of  an  elixir  which  would  render  him  im- 
mortal ,  but  he  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  leaving  his 
followers  overwhelmed  with  shame  and  dismay.  The 
last  of  the  alchemists  was  Van  Hclmont,  who  boasted  of 

*  This  terra  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words,  pan,  all,  and 
alws,  medicine,  signifying  to  cure  all. 


HISTORY   OF    CHEMISTRY.  193 

being  in  possession  of  the  universal  remedy  to  which  *he 
gave  the  name  of  alkahest. 

The  alchemistical  system  crumbling  into  ruins,  chem- 
istry, like  the  fabled  Phoenix,  arpse  from  its  ashes. 
Beccher,  a  professor  of  medicine  in  Germany,  taught 
that  the  earth  was  not  a  simple  element,  but  a  combina- 
tion of  elements;  he  attempted  to' establish  chemistry  on 
its  true  basis,  that  of  analysis :  his  experiments  were  of 
great  use  to  succeeding  chemists. 

j&  Stahl;  the  pupil  of  Beccher,  remodelled  and  simplified 
the  theory  of  his  predecessors,  attempted  to  explain  the 
process  of  combustion,  and  to  reduce  the  phenomena  of 
chemistry  under  a  certain  number  of  heads.  His  theory 
of  combustion  supposed  that  a  certain  substance,  which 
he  called  phlogiston,  formed  a  part  of  all  combustible 
bodies,  and  that  its  separation  constitutes  fire.  On 
account  of  the  boldness  of  his  investigations,  he  was 
called  the  sublime  Stahl.  He  is  the  first  chemist  who 
appeared  to  have  any  clear  ideas  of  chemical  affinity ; 
he  even  suggested  the  theory  of  double  elective  at- 
traction. 

At  this  period  many  learned  men  were  engaged  in 
chemical  pursuits,  and  the  science  was  enriched  by  the 
discoveries  of  Boyle,  Agricola,  Glauber,  Kunckel, 
Libavius,  Bohnius,  Lemery,  and  others. 

Boerhave,  an  accomplished  philosopher  and  celebrat- 
ed physician,  published  a  system  of  chemistry  in  1732, 
which  contained  a  more  ample  collection  of  chemical 
experiments,  and  more  clear  and  precise  directions  for 
repeating  them,  than  any  previously  offered  to  the  world. 
He  gave  an  account  of  vegetable  analyses,  more  simple 
and  scientific  than  any  which  had  before  appeared. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  improvements,  chemistry 
was  yet  in  a  very  imperfect  state ;  some  of  the  absurd 
notions  of  the  alchemists  still  remained,  and  loose  and 
unsatisfactory  reasonings,  founded  on  vague  analogies, 
were  employed.  It  was  not  for  a  common  mind  to 
attempt  to  remove  the  shackles  of  prejudice  which  ages 
had  been  riveting  upon  the  human  intellect.  At  this 
time  appeared  Bergmann,  a  man  gifted  with  a  quick  and 
discriminating  genius,  a  moral  courage  that  could  look 
17 


§94  HISTORY    OF    CHEMISTRT. 

above  '  the  world's  dread  laugh/  and  a  devoted  enthu- 
siasm for  the  science  of  chemistry. 

With  a  true  analytical  method  he  scrutinized  nature, 
with  a  view  to  ascertain  her  laws  of  aggregation ;  he 
arranged  the  well-known  tables  of  elective  attractions, 
and  published  many  important  experiments  upon  volcan- 
ic products.  The  clearness  of  his  conceptions,  the 
accuracy  of  his  observations,  and  the  methodical  ar- 
rangement which  he  introduced  into  the  science  of 
chemistry,  entitled  Bergmann  to  a  rank  among  its 
greatest  benefactors.  A  native  of  the  same  country, 
and  contemporary  with  Linnaeus,  it  was  his  high  destiny 
to  labor  with  almost  equal  success  in  the  cause  of  nat- 
ural science.  While  Linnaeus  was  investigating  the 
external  forms  of  nature,  with  a  view  to  the  systematic 
arrangement  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
kingdoms,  Bergmann  was  analyzing  and  arranging  the 
elements  of  which  they  are  composed.  With  the  frank- 
ness and  generosity  which  marks  a  noble  mind,  he  sent 
to  Linnaeus  an  account  of  his  experiments  and  observa- 
tions. The  latter  equally  generous,  forwarded  Bergman's 
communications  to  the  academy  of  Stockholm  with  this 
inscription,  '  Vide,'  et  obstupui  (I  have  seen,  and  am 
amazed). 

Scheele,  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Bergmann,  enriched 
chemistry  with  new  and  important  facts :  he  died  in 
1786,  two  years  after  the  death  of  his  predecessor;  his 
name  is  commemorated  in  that  of  a  compound  of  cop- 
per and  arsenixv,  (arsenite  of  copper)  called  Scheele's 
green.  By  a  late  distinguished  chemist,*  he  is  called 
the  Newton  of  chemistry. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Bergmann  and  Scheele,  a 
series  of  splendid  discoveries  marked  the  advancement 
of  chemical  science  in  Great  Britain.  Dr.  Black  discov- 
ered the  existence  of  latent  caloric,  and  that  limestone 
is  a  compound  of  lime  ami  an  aerial  fluid,  which  he 
called  fixed  air,  now  called  carbonic  acid  gas.  This 
discovery  gave  rise  to  pneumatic  chemistry,  or  that 
branch  of  the  science  which  relates  to  gasses. 

*  Thomson. 


HISTORY    OF    CHEMISTRY.  195 

Mr.  Cavendish  soon  after  this  discovered  hydrogen 
{gas.  In  1770,  Dr.  Priestley  commenced  a  series  of  pneu- 
matic discoveries :  he  observed  that  by  heating  certain 
metals  a  kind  of  air  was  obtained,  much  purer  than  the 
atmosphere,  and  in  combustible  substances  with  great 
brilliancy.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  this  was 
oxygen  gas. 

While  the  science  of  chemistry  was  receiving  these 
important  acquisitions  in  one  part  of  Europe,  Lavoisier 
in  France  had  already  commenced  his  brilliant  career, 
and  opened  to  his  countrymen  that  pathway  to  scientific 
distinction,  which  so  many  have  since  pursued  with 
almost  unrivalled  success.  Lavoisier  found  that  the 
recent  discoveries  with  respect  to  g asses  could  not  be 
reconciled  with  the  phlogistic  theory  of  combustion.; 
and  after  years  of  patient  and  laborious  investigation, 
he  published  the  grand  theory  which  considered  oxygen 
as  the  supporter  of  combustion.  This  theory  at  first 
met,  with  general  opposition,  but  gradually  gained  sup- 
porters until  Cavendish,  Berthollet,  Black,  Morveau, 
Fourcroy,  tmd  Kirwan,  (the  latter  of  whom  had 'strong- 
ly opposed  ii)  were  found  among  its  disciples. 

In  1787,  Lavoisier,  Fourcroy,  Berthollet,  and  Guyton 
de  Morveau,  were  appointed  by  the  French  academy  to 
decide  upon  a  nomenclature  of  chemistry  :  with  great  care 
and  research  they  formed  that,  which  is  now  the  almost 
universal  language  of  the  science. 

Great  Britain  may  boast  of  many  distinguished  mod- 
ern chemists ;  of  Davy,  the  powerful  advocate  of  the 
chloridic  theory,  and  the  inveator  of  the  safety  lamp; 
Murray,  Brande,  and  Thomson,  with  many  others,  whose 
labors  have  enlightened  the  present  age,  and  whose 
works  will  render  their  names  familiar  to  succeeding 
generations. 

On  the  continent,  Berzelius,  Vauquelin,  Berthollet, 
Gay-Lussac,  Thenard,  Dumas,  Dulong,  Pelletier,  and 
ethers,  have  carried  their  researches  and  analyses  to  a 
degree  of  accuracy  and  clearness  hitherto  unrivalled. 
The  year  1829  is  memorable  for  the  loss  sustained  by 
science,  in  the  death  of  two  of  her  most  'distinguished 


196  HISTORY    OF    CHEMISTRY. 

votaries ;  but  long  will  the  halo  of  glory  encircle  the 
venerated  names  of  Vauquelin  and  Davy. 

In  America,  Franklin,  fearlessly  encountering  the 
lightning  from  heaven,  proved  its  identity  with  electri- 
city, and  taught  mankind  to  guard  against  this  awful 
agent  of  destruction.  Hare,  Silliman,*  Eaton,  with 
other  veterans  in  the  science,  and  less  experienced 
chemists,  are  interrogating  nature  with  a  brighter  pros- 
pect of  discovery  than  that  which  encouraged  the  efforts 
of  their  predecessor--  :  for,  as  the  field  of  discovery  and 
improvement  is  infinite,  in  proportion  as  facilities  for 
them  are  multiplied,  so  are  the  motives  for  exertion. 
As  correct  would  it  have  been,  at  the  period  when  earth, 
fire,  and  water  were  considered  as  the  four  elements  of  na- 
ture, for  an  investigating  mind  to  have  rested  in  this 
belief,  as  at  this  day  to  suppose  that  we  have  arrived  at 
the  maximum  of  human  knowledge,  or  have  already 
learned  as  much  of  the  properties  of  nature  as  its  Al- 
mighty Creator  wills  that  we  should  know. 

From  the  nature  of  chemical  experiments,  which  in 
most  cases  require  either  firmness  of  nerve,  unshrinking 
courage,  or  physical  strength,  and  sometimes  all  these 
qualities  combined,  woman  may  not  aspire  to  add  to  the 
stock  of  chemical  science,  discoveries  of  her  own  ;  but, 
gifted  with  the  intellectual  power  to  trace  the  relation  of 
cause  and  effect,  and  comprehend  the  wonderful  pro- 
perties of  matter  which  science  reveals,  she  may  dare  to 
raise  the  curtain  which  conceals  the  operations  of  nature, 
and,  entering  her  laboratory,  behold  the  grand  experi- 
ments there  exhibited  :  nor  should  it  be  considered  a 
small  privilege  that  she  is  permitted  to  share  in  the 
sublime  discoveries  of  science,  and  to  feast  on  the  ban- 
quet of  knowledge,  prepared  by  others. 

Is  it  not  more  noble  for  an  immortal  soul  thus  to  em- 

S'oy  itself  in  learning  the  second  causes  by  which   the 
eity  operates  in  the   material  world,  than  to   waste  the 
precious   hours  of  existence   in  dreaming   over   sickly 

*  Perhaps  no  chemical  work  has  ever  been  published,  which 
exhibits  objects  of  the  science  in  a  clearer  light  than  Professor 
Silliman's  late  work  on  chemistry. 


NATURAL   HISTORY.  197 

works  of  fancy?  Can  the  admirers  of  sublimity  and 
beauty  find  none  in  the  study  of  nature?  or  can  the 
lover  of  the  marvellous  find  *io  v/onders  in  her  opera- 
tions? There  is  in  chemistry,  poetry  to  satisfy  the 
most  extravagant  fancy,  and  in  the  sublime  truths  of 
the  science  are  mysteries  far  surpassing  the  boldest  con- 
ceptions of  human  genius. 


LECTURE  XVIT. 

Natural  History. — Zoology. 

IN  the  study  of  nature,  we  become  familiar  with  the 
works  of  God ;  we  contemplate  the  heavens  above,  the 
materials  of  the  earth  beneath,  the  objects  around  us,  and 
we  feel  that  they  must  have  had  a  divine  author.  Whether 
we  view  the  works  of  nature  on  a  large  scale,  as  exhibit- 
ed in  the  more  magnificent  parts  of  creation,  or  with 
microscopic  eye  examine  the  structure  of  a  crystal,  an 
insect,  or  a  blade  of  grass,  we  are  alike  struck  with 
wonder  and  awe ;  we  bow  in  adoration  to  Him  for  whose 
comprehension  nothing  is  too  great,  and  whose  minute 
providence  is  over  all,  even  the  least  of  his  works.  The 
study  of  nature  has  a  tendency  both  to  humble  and 
exalt  man  in  his  own  eyes.  When  he  compares  his  own 
powers,  physical  and  mental,  with  that  omnipotence 
which  the  works  of  nature  manifest,  he  feels  that  he  is 
'less  than  nothing  and  vanity  ;'  but  when  he  finds  within 
himself  faculties  capable  of  investigating  the  properties 
of  these  wonderful  objects,  of  arranging  them  in  classes, 
of  discovering  their  laws  of  organization,  and  of  decom- 
posing them  into  their  original  elements,  he  feels  him- 
self ennobled ;  he  realizes  that  these  faculties  must  be 
those  of  a  soul  capable  of  still  higher  attainments.  It  is 
indeed  salutary  to  hold  converse  with  the  works  of  God, 
the  volume  of  nature  which  has  been  emphatically 
termed,  '  elder  scripture  writ  by  God's  own  hand.1 
17* 


19S  ZOOLOGY. 

We  have  observed  that  all  material  bodies,  all  animals, 
plants,  and  minerals,  are  subject  to  chemical  observations 
and  experiments  ; — but  for  this,  they  must  be  pulverized, 
dissolved,  distilled  or  melted.  By  a  series  of  these  pro- 
cesses, the  chemist  arrives  at  the  knowledge  of  the  ele- 
ments which  compose  the  various  bodies,  organic  and 
inorganic,  which  he  meets  with. 

In  Natural  History,  a  term  which  comprehends 
Zoology,  Botany,  and  Mineralogy,  we  view  animals, 
plants,  and  minerals,  as  they  exist  in  their  complete 
state  :  we  observe  their  external  forms,  and  the  various 
changes  which  nature  produces  in  them.  The  first 
object  of  the  naturalist  is  to  know  the  productions  of 
nature,  and  to  distinguish  the  various  kinds  or  species 
from  each  other.  The  next  is  the  arrangement  of  these 
species  under  more  general  divisions,  and  again  to  sim- 
plify these  divisions,  until,  under  a  few  classes,  he 
arranges  the  almost  infinite  variety  of  animal,  vegetable 
and  mineral  productions. 

Zoology. 

The  term  zoology  is  derived  from  the  Greek  zoe,  life, 
and  logos,  discourse  :  this  science  examines  and  classes 
those  organized  beings  which  are  termed  animal.  The 
distinction  between  animal  and  vegetable  life  is  not,  in 
all  cases,  so  clear  as  might  be  imagined,  yet  in  general 
it  is  sufficiently  apparent.  *  The  animal  has  the  power 
to  move  about,  and  to  seek  the  nourishment  most  agree- 
able ;  it  utters  audible  sounds,  and  possesses  sensation 
and  apparent  consciousness.  The  plant,  on  the  contrary, 
is  confined  to  a  particular  spot,  having  no  other  nourish- 
ment than  substances  which  themselves  come  in  contact 
with  it ;  exhibiting  no  consciousness,  nor  to  common 
observation  any  sensation,  It  is  only  when  we  examine 
with  close  attention  the  various  phenomena  in  the  vege- 
table and  animal  kingdoms,  that  we  learn  to  doubt  as  to 
the  exact  boundaries  by  which  they  are  separated. 

For  a  general  view  of  the  science  of  zoology,  I  shall 
avail  myself  of  the  sketch  appended  to  the  '  View  of  Na- 
ture '  in  my  Lectures  on  Botany.  One  great  distinction 


ZOOLOGY,  199 

in  the  animal  kingdom  is  with  respect  to  the  vertebra,  or 
back  bones ;  such  animals  as  have  these,  are  called 
vertebral,  such  as  have  not,  are  called  avertebraL 

There  are  four  great  families  of  vertebral  animals, 
viz. 

1.  Quadrupeds.     The  science  of  which  has  no  popu- 
lar name.     This  family  includes  only  four-footed  animals ; 
as  ox,  dog,  mouse. 

2.  Birds.     The  study  of  which  is  called  ornithology, 
from  ornis,  a  bird,  and  logos.     This   family  includes  the 
feathered  tribe  ;   as  pigeon,  goose,  wren. 

3.  Amphibious  animals  (from  amphi,  both,  and  bios, 
life,  signifying  to  live  in  two  ways.)     The  science  which 
treats  of  these  is  called  amphibiology  :   it  includes  those 
cold-blooded  animals  which  are  capable  of  living  on  dry 
land,  or  in  the  water ;   as  tortoise,  lizard,  serpent,  frog, 

4.  Fishes.     The    science  of  which  is  called  ichthy- 
ology from  ichthus,  a  fish,  added  to  logos.     It  includes 
all  aquatic  animals  which  have  gills  and  fins ;   as  shad, 
trout,  sturgeon,  eel. 

The  avertebral  animals  are  divided  into  two  classes. 

1.  Insects.     The  science  of  which  is  called  entomology 
(from  entomos  an  insect )     It   includes  all   animals  with 
jointed  bodies,  which  have  jointed  limbs;   as  flies,  spi- 
ders, lobsters. 

2.  Vermes.     The   science  of  which  is  called  hermin- 
thology.     It  includes  all  soft   animals  of  the   avertebral 
division,  which  have  no  jointed  limbs,  with  or  without 
hard  coverings :  as  angle-worms,  snails,  oysters,  and  in- 
fusory  animals,  (animalculce). 

According  to  the  classification  of  Linnaeus,  with  some 
modifications  by  Cuvier,  the  Animal  Kingdom  is  ar- 
ranged under  four  grand  divisions,  viz. 

VERTEBRAL,  MOLLUSCOUS,  ARTICULATED,  and  RADI- 
ATED. These  are  subdivided  into  classes  and  orders. 

First  Grand  Divsion. —  Vertebral  Animals. 

Class  1.  Mammalia,  or  such  as  at  first  are  nourished 
by  milk.  This  class  have  lungs,  and  peculiar  organs 
for  imbibing  their  food,  during  their  first  stage  of  exist- 
ence. 


200  ZOOLOGY. 

The  First  order  is  called  Bi-mani  (from  bis  two, 
mani  hands ; )  this  order  includes  man  only ;  we  find 
here  no  generic  or  specific  differences,  but  the  following 
varieties. 

1.  Caucasian  race,  anciently  inhabiting  the  country 
about  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas ;  from  these  we  are 
descended. 

2.  The    Mongolian,  the    ancient   inhabitants    about 
the   Pacific   Ocean,   from  whom   the  Chinese  are   de- 
scended. 

3.  The  Ethiopian  or  Negro  race. 

The  Second  order  contains  the  quadru-mani,  from 
quatuor,  four,  and  mani,  hands.  These  have  thumbs  or 
toes,  separate,  on  each  of  the  four  feet.  We  here  find 
orang-outang  (sometimes  called  the  wild  man)  and  the 
monkey. 

The  Third  order  contains  carnivorous  animals,  or 
flesh  feeders,  having  no  separate  thumbs,  or  having  great 
toes  without  nails ;  as  the  dog  and  cat. 

The  Fourth  order  contains  the  Gnawers,  having  no 
canine  teeth  (those  which  are  called  eye-teeth),  feeding 
almost  wholly  on  vegetable  substances;  as  the  Rat  and 
Squirrel. 

The  Fifth  order  is  Edentata,  or  animals  wanting 
teeth;  as  the  sloth  and  armadillo. 

The  Sixth  order,  Pachyderma,  thick  skin  animals 
with  hoofs ;  as  the  elephant,  horse,  and  hog. 

The  Seventh  order  contains  the  Ruminating  animals, 
such  as  chew  the  cud,  having  front  teeth  (incisors) 
below  only,  and  feet  with  hoofs  cloven ;  as  the  ox,  sheep, 
and  camel. 

The  Eighth  order,  Cete,  contains  aquatic  animals,  such 
as  live  in  water,  having  no  kind  of  feet,  or  whose  feet 
are  fin-like  limbs ;  as  the  whale  and  dolphin. 

We  have  enumerated  all  the  orders  of  the  class  Mam- 
malia, as  it  is  the  one  on  which  man  is  placed ;  we 
shall  now  notice  the  remaining  classes  of  animals,  with- 
out going  into  so  minute  a  detail  of  their  orders. 

Class  II.  Contains  Birds  (Aves),  which  are  distin- 
guished by  having  the  body  covered  with  feathers  and 
down,  long  naked  jaws,  two  wings  formed  for  flight .  they 


ZOOLOGY.  201 

are  called  bi-ped  (from  bis  two,  and  pedes  feet.)  The 
orders  in  this  class,  are  chiefly  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  peculiar  make  of  the  bill  and  feet. 

Class  III.  Amphibia,  contains  amphibious  animals, 
including  what  are  commonly  called  reptiles.  It  is  divid- 
ed into  four  orders. 

1.  With  shells  over   their  back,   and  four  feet;    as 
the  tortoise  and  turtle. 

2.  Covered   with    scales,  and  having  four  feet;    as 
the  crocodile  and  lizard. 

3.  Body  naked,   destitute  of  feet;    as  serpents   arid 
snakes. 

4.  The  body  naked,   and  having  two,  or  four  feet; 
as  the  frog  and  toad. 

Class  IV.  Contains  Fishes  (Pisces),  natives  of  the 
water,  unable  to  exist  for  any  length  of  time  out  of  it; 
swift  in  their  motions,  and  voracious  in  their  appetites, 
breathing  by  means  of  gills,  which  are  generally  united 
in  a  long  arch  ;  swimming  by  means  of  radiated  fins,  and 
mostly  covered  with  scales. 

Second  Grand  Division. 

Class  V.  Mollusca,  bodies  soft  without  bones,  but 
their  muscles  attached  to  a  skin  which  forms  a  calcare- 
ous covering,  called  a  shell,  and  is  in  many  cases,  pro- 
duced from  their  skin.  These  animals  possess  no 
organs  of  sense  but  those  of  taste  and  sight,  and  these 
are  often  wanting.  The  nautilus  and  cuttle-fish  are  of 
the  highest  order  of  Molluscous  animals. 

One  order  contains  animals  without  head,  having  a 
shell  usually  of  two  pieces;  these  are  called  Si-valves; 
as  the  oyster,  clam,  and  snail.  The  study  of  concholo- 
gy  (from  conchus  a  shell)  has  relation  to  this  class  of 
animals. 

Third  Grand  Division. 

"We  proceed  next  to  those  animals  called  Articulated; 
these  have  jointed  trunks  and  mostly  jointed  limbs. 
They  possess  the  faculty  of  locomotion,  or  changing 
place  :  some  have  feet,  and  others  are  destitute  of  them ; 
the  latter  move  by  trailing  along  their  bodies. 

Class  VI.  Annelida,  contains  such  animals  as  have 


202  ZOOLOGY. 

red  blood,  without  a  bony  skeleton ;  bodies  soft  and 
long,  the  covering  divided  into  transverse  rings;  they 
live  mostly  in  water ;  some  of  them  secrete  calcareous 
matter,  which  forms  a  hard  covering  or  shell ;  as  the 
earth  or  angle-worm,  and  leech. 

Class  VII.  Crustacea,  contains  animals  without  blood, 
with  jointed  limbs  fastened  to  a  calcareous  crust ;  they 
breathe  by  a  kind  of  gills. 

Class  VIII.  Arachnida,  contains  spider-like  animals 
without  blood,  having  jointed  limbs,  without  horns: 
they  breathe  by  little  openings,  which  lead  to  organs 
resembling  lungs,  or  by  little  pipes  distributed  over  the 
whole  body:  these  do  not  pass  through  any  important 
change  of  state,  as  insects  do ;  they  have  mostly  six  or 
eight  eyes,  and  eight  feet,  and  feed  chiefly  on  living 
animals.  Examples  of  this  class  are  the  spider  and  scor- 
pion. 

Class  IX.  Insecta,  or  insects,  without  blood,  having 
jointed  limbs  and  horns :  they  breathe  by  two  pipes, 
running  parallel  to  each  other,  through  the  whole  body ; 
they  have  two  horns ;  they  are  mostly  winged,  having 
one  or  two  pairs :  a  few  are  without  wings ;  mostly  with 
six  feet.  They  possess  all  the  senses  whish  belong  to 
any  class  of  animals  except  that  of  hearing. 

The  winged  insects  pass  through  several  changes  or 
metamorphoses.  The  Butterfly  is  first  an  egg;  this 
when  hatched  is  long  and  cylindrical,  and  divided  into 
numerous  rings,  having  many  short  legs,  jaws,  and  sev- 
eral small  eyes;  this  is  the  larva,  or  caterpillar.  At 
length  k  casts  off  its  skin,  and  appears  in  another  form 
without  limbs.  It  neither  takes  nourishment,  moves, 
nor  gives  any  sign  of  life  •  this  is  called  the  chrysalis. 
In  process  of  time,  by  examining  it  closely,  the  imperfect 
form  of  the  butterfly  may  be  seen  through  the  envelope ; 
this,  it  soon  bursts,  and  a  perfect  butterfly  appears. 
When  about  to  pass  into  the  chrysalis  state,  of  which 
they  appear  to  have  warning,  the  insect  selects  some 
place  where  it  may  repose  safely  during  its  temporary 
death.*  The  silk-worm  spins  itself  a  silken  shroud,  and 
from  this  all  our  silk  is  obtained. 

*  May  not  this  be  considered  as  a  lesson  to  man  to  anticipate 


ZOOLOGY.  203 

Fourth  Grand  Division. — Radiated  Animals. 

Class  X.  Zoophites,  or  animal  plants.  Here  we  find 
the  lowest  beings  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Some  of  the 
orders  of  this  class  contain  animals  which  have  neither 
heart,  brains,  nerves  nor  any  apparent  means  of  breath- 
ing. These  are  sometimes  called  animal  plants ;  many 
of  them,  as  the  corals,  are  fixed  to  rocks,  and  never 
change  place.  The  term  coral  includes  under  it  many 
species:  the  red  coral  used  for  ornaments  is  the  most 
beautiful.  The  substance  of  coral,  when  subjected  to 
chemical  analysis,  is  found  to  consist  chiefly  of  carbonate 
of  lime;  the  hard  crust  which  envelopes  the  animal  sub- 
stances, is  an  excretion  formed  by  it  in  the  same  way  as 
the  shells  of  the  oyster  and  lobster  are  produced,  or  as 
nails  grow  upon  the  fingers  and  toes  of  the  human  body. 
The  quantity  of  this  carbonate  of  lime  elaborated  by  the 
little  coral  animal  is  truly  wonderful ;  islands  are  formed 
and  harbors  blocked  up  by  it.  Some  of  the  zoophites 
are  fixed,  by  a  kind  of  root,  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea; 
some,  as  the  sea-nettle,  which  appears  like  the  segment 
of  a  circle,  are  carried  about  by  the  motion  of  the  wa- 
ters, without  any  voluntary  motion,  as  are  also  the  sea 
daisy,  sea  mary-gold,  and  the  sea  carnation,  so  named 
from  an  apparent  resemblance  to  those  plants.  We  find 
here  the  sea-fan,  the  sea -pen  and  the  madrepore,  the 
latter  of  which  are  often  thrown  together  in  vast  quan- 
tities. 

The  Sponge  also  belongs  to  this  class  of  strange 
animal  substances ;  it  consists  of  a  fibrous  mass,  contain- 
ing a  jelly-like  substance,  which,  when  touched,  discov- 
ers a  slight  sensation,  the  only  sign  of  life  manifested  by 
it.  There  are  many  species  of  sponge;  those  most  val- 
ued in  the  arts  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
Indian  Ocean.  Some  grow  upon  rocks,  and  are  found 
covering  the  interior  of  submarine  caves.  The  Spon- 
gia  parasitica  is  seen  growing  upon  the  back  and  legs 
of  a  species  of  crab ;  sometimes  as  many  as  forty  indi- 
vidual sponges  extend  themselves  over  the  the  crab, 

and  provide  for  the  change  in  his  existence,  which  his  bodily  in- 
firmities and  daily  observation  teach  him  is  to  be  his  own  lot ? 


204  ZOOLOGY. 

impeding  the  motion  of  its  joints,  spreading  like  a  cloak 
over  its  back,  or  forming  for  its  head  grotesque  and 
towering  ornaments,  from  which  the  poor  crab  vainly 
attempts  to  disencumber  itself. 

Some  species  of  the  sponge  grow  to  a  very  large  size ; 
one  has  been  found  in  the  East  Indies  in  the  form  of  a 
cup,  capable  of  containing  ten  gallons  of  water.  The 
fibrous  part  of  the  sponge  is  the  skeleton  of  the  animal : 
the  large  apertures  serve  to  carry  out  fluids  from  within  ,• 
while  the  water  by  which  the  animal  is  nourished  is 
imbibed  by  minute  pores :  this  continual  circulation  of 
water  is  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  the  liv- 
ing sponge. 

These  animals  resemble  plants  in  their  manner  of 
producing  others ;  they  form  a  species  of  germ,  like  the 
bud  growing  upon  the  stalk ;  this  falls  off  from  the  stem, 
and  becomes  a  perfect  animal.  If  a  part  of  one  of  those 
animals  is  separated  from  the  rest,  it  will  itself  be  as 
perfect  a  living  animal  as  was  the  whole  before.  A 
polypus  can  be  divided  into  as  many  animals  as  it  con- 
tains atoms ;  some  of  this  order  are  very  properly  called 
hydras  (many  headed).  Besides  these,  there  is  another 
order  of  animal  substances,  infusoria,  which  appear  like 
a  homogeneous  mass,  having  no  appearance  of  any  limbs 
whatever ;  these  are  either  angular,  oval  or  gobular. 

At  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom  we  found  man,  suf- 
ficiently resembling  brute  animals  in  his  material  frame  to 
constitute  part  of  an  extensive  class,  embracing  the  ape, 
elephant,  and  dog  ;  yet  between  the  lowest  degree  of  in- 
telligence in  the  human  race,  and  the  highest  faculties 
of  brutes,  there  is  a  line  of  distinction  marked  by  the 
hand  of  the  Almighty,  in  characters  too  obvious  for 
doubt.  God  said,  *  Let  us  make  man  in  our  own  image  ; 
and  he  breathed  into  him  the  breath  of  life.  And  man 
became  a  living  soul.3 

Some  writers  have  attempted  to  show  that  man  differs 
only  from  the  inferior  order  of  animals  in  possessing  a 
greater  variety  of  instincts.  But  however  wonderful  may 
appear  the  instinctive  perceptions  of  brutes,  they  are 
destitute  of  reason,  and  incapable  of  being  the  subjects 
of  moral  government.  We  must,  therefore,  both  from 


ZOOLOGY.  205 

our  own  observation  and  the  declarations  of  scripture, 
infer,  that  the  faculties  of  man  differ,  not  in  degree  only, 
but  distinctly  in  their  nature,  from  those  of  all  other  be- 
ings upon  our  globe. 

1  Man,5  says  Buffon,  '  by  his  form,  and  the  perfection 
of  his  organs,  and  as  the  only  being  on  earth  endowed 
with  reason,  seems  properly  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
kingdoms  of  nature.  All  in  him  announces  the  lord  of 
the  earth ;  his  form  marks  his  superiority  over  all  living 
beings  ;  he  stands  erect  in  the  attitude  of  command  ;  he 
can  gaze  upon  the  heavens  ;  on  his  face  is  imprinted  the 
character  of  dignity  ;  the  image  of  his  soul  is  painted 
upon  his  features,  and  the  excellence  of  his  nature  pene- 
trates through  his  material  organs  and  animates  the  ex- 
pression of  his  countenance/ 

In  the  orders  of  animals  next  to  man,  we  find  the 
senses  of  sight,  touch,  taste,  arid  smell,  equally  perfect  as 
those  possessed  by  him,  and  in  some  cases  they  are  even 
more  acute ;  but  as  we  proceed  downwards  through  the 
gradations  of  animal  existence,  we  perceive  the  number 
and  acuteness  of  the  senses  to  diminish ;  we  find  some 
beings  with  but  four  senses,  some  with  three,  others  with 
two  ;  and  lastly,  in  the  Zoophites,  we  find  only  the  sense 
of  touch,  and  that  so  faintly  exhibited,  as  almost  to  lead 
us  to  doubt  its  existence. 

The  branches  of  zoology  which  may  be  pursued  most 
easily  and  most  agreeably  by  females  are  conchology  and 
entomology.  Conchology  presents  to  the  eye  of  taste 
many  splendid  and  curious  objects.  Fashion  with  her 
potent  wand  seems  to  have  ordered  shells  a  place  in 
the  saloon  and  boudoir,  and  it  now  remains  for  science 
to  make  her  claim  to  the  right  of  arranging  them  accord- 
ing to  her  own  methodical  and  philosophical  rules. 
'  '  To  procure  shells  in  their  native  situation  is  by  no 
means  difficult ;  they  may  be  picked  up  in  ledges,  and 
on  banks ;  drawn  out  of  ponds  and  rivers,  along  with 
weeds ;  collected  on  the  sea  shore,  or  among  rocks ;  or 
they  may  be  found  among  the  refuse,  in  fisherman's 
nets.  To  obtain  an  extensive  collection  in  this  way, 
would,  however,  require  much  time  and  travelling,  or 
the  kind  aid  of  many  friends :  enough,  however,  to  illus- 
18 


206  ZOOLOGY. 

trate  the  classes,  orders,  and  many  of  the  families,  may 
be  thus  easily  assembled,  and  afford  much  practical 
instruction.  We  recommend  such  a  commencement 
before  recourse  be  had  to  the  more  usual  mode  of 
obtaining  a  collection ;  namely,  that  of  purchase.  If 
the  latter  means  be  resorted  to,  the  buyer  should  be 
satisfied  that  each  shell  is  perfect  and  full  grown,  and, 
if  only  one  of  the  kind  be  selected,  well  colored,  and  as 
much  in  its  natural  state  as  a  freedom  from  foreign 
matters  will  permit :  all  degrees  of  artificial  polish,  or 
from,  should  be  considered  as  blemishes ;  except  in 
articles  of  ornament.  The  size  should  be  suited,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  to  that  of  the  purchaser's  cabinet. 
It  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  the  student,  to  endea- 
vor to  fill  up  her  series  of  families,  or  genera,  before  she 
is  anxious  about  particular  species ;  unless  she  would 
confine  her  collection  to  some  one  tribe,  which,  after 
she  has  obtained  a  little  general  information,  is  a  good 
practice.  A  collection  is  best  kept  in  small  trays,  in 
shallow  drawers  of  equal  depth ;  and  such  specimens  as 
are  too  large  for  the  drawers,  will  form  a  handsome 
article  of  furniture  arranged  in  a  glass  case.  Our  rea- 
son for  recommending  drawers  of  an  equal  depth,  is, 
that  a  systematic  arrangement  may  be  followed  which 
would  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  any  collection,  and 
would  be  entirely  destroyed  by  having  regard  to  every 
variation  of  size.  No  other  care  will  be  requisite,  than 
to  exclude  the  dust,  or  occasionally  wash  the  specimens 
tenderly  with  soap  and  water.'  * 

Entomology  is  an  interesting  branch  of  Natural 
History.  There  is  a  difficulty  in  the  pursuit  of  this, 
which  does  not  exist  in  the  study  of  shells,  since  in  the 
latter  case,  in  obtaining  specimens,  we  do  not  usually 
need  to  destroy  animal  life ;  the  inhabitant  of  the  shell 
being  in  most  cases  decayed,  before  its  covering  passes 
into  our  hands.  It  is  the  tenement,  and  not  the  organ- 
ized being  which  is  the  object  of  our  classification. 
But  in  the  examination  of  insects  we  cannot  but  expe- 
rience uneasiness  at  the  idea  of  causing  pain,  even  to  a 
poor  beetle — and  then  the  giddy  butterfly  so  joyous  and 

*  Young  Ladj's  Book. 


ZOOLOGY.  207 

sportive,  we  cannot  but  feel  some  regret  to  abridge  its 
ephemeral  existence,  and  to  know  that  its  beaaty  has 
accelerated  its  doom — emblem  but  too  apt  of  many 
an  unfortunate  of  our  own  sex !  And  yet,  waiving  the 
consideration  of  suffering,  which  may  be,  in  a  degree, 
imaginary,  since  there  are  various  ways  in  which  insects 
may  be  deprived  of  life  without  pain,  there  is  much  to 
interest  the  mind  in  the  study  of  Entomology, — much  to 
awaken  new  admiration,  for  the  works  of  Nature,  and  to 
show  forth  the  wonderful  power  and  wisdom  of  the  great 
Creator.  The  least  insect,  considered  as  the  workman- 
ship of  God,  becomes  to  us  a  curious  manifestation  of 
his  skill.  We  find  insects  like  all  other  organized  beings 
arranged  by  nature  into  genera,  as  in  the  butterfly, 
papilio ;  the  bee,  apis  ;  the  fly,  musca,  &c.  Orders  and 
classes  are  a  less  natural  division  formed  by  men  of 
science  for  the  purpose  of  more  convenient  reference 
and  arrangement. 

The  study  of  zoology  will  naturally  lead  you  to  think 
more  of  the  structure  of  your  own  frame ;  and  how- 
ever startling  the  idea  may  be,  I  cannot  but  consider 
some  knowledge  of  the  human  anatomy  as  desirable  for 
females.  You  will  pardon  me  if  I  here  allude  to  the 
utility  of  this  knowledge  as  exemplified  in  the  case  of 
my  own  mother,  in  whose  recent  loss  I  have  had  the  kind 
sympathy  of  many  an  affectionate  heart  among  my  pupils. 

She  early  acquired  a  habit  of  examining  the  anatomy 
of  such  animals  as  are  used  for  food ;  joints  of  meat, 
fowls,  &/c.  she  dissected  with  particular  attention  to  the 
form  and  position  of  the  different  bones.  Thus  she  soon 
became  an  adept  at  carving,  (an  art  which  every  mistress 
of  a  family  ought  to  understand)  and,  reasoning  from 
analogy,  formed  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  human 
anatomy.  In  rearing  a  large  family,  she  often  found 
this  knowledge  of  great  use.  In  more  than  one  case, 
where  accidents  either  in  her  own  family  and  immediate 
neighborhood  had  caused  dislocation  of  joints,  and  im- 
mediate surgical  aid  could  not  be  obtained,  she  has 
replaced  bones,  and  secured  them  by  proper  ligatures. 

You  may  now  shrink  from  the  thought  of  performing 
such  an  office ;  but  in  the  varied  scenes  of  life  many 
trials  may  be  required  of  your  skill,  fortitude  and 


208 


BOTANY. 


strength  of  nerves,  from  which  sensibility  may  revolt — 
but  which  is  the  truly  good  and  interesting  neighbor, 
daughter,  wife,  or  mother, — she  who  can  command  her 
own  feelings  sufficiently  to  perform  painful  offices  for 
the  relief  of  those  she  loves,  and  even  for  the  sake  of 
common  humanity,  or  she  who,  like  Niobe,  dissolved  in 
sentimental  grief,  commisserates,  without  attempting  to 
relieve?  Youth  and  beauty  may  now  gain  for  you  a 
short-lived  admiration,  an  evanescent  love;  but  the  time 
will  soon  arrive  when  you  will  be  respected  and  honored 
only  as  you  are  wise  and  useful. 

Botany. 

The  study  of  Botany  is  highly  calculated  to  interest 
females,  and  to  enlarge  and  discipline  the  mind.  This 
idea  and  the  conviction  that  no  popular  work  existed 
which  could  lead  the  pupil  step  by  step  from  the  most 
simple  elements  to  the  general  principles  of  the  science, 
gave  rise  to  my  Familiar  Lectures  on  Botany.*  Since 
the  publication  of  that  volume,  I  have  had  the  satisfaction 
of  knowing  that  the  science  of  which  it  treats  has  been 
extensively  introduced  into  female  seminaries  and 
schools,  of  every  grade,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest. 
The  mistaken  idea  that  Botany  was  a  dry  and  difficult 
study,  had  deterred  most  females  from  attempting  to 
gain  any  scientific  knowledge  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. So  far  however  is  this  from  being  the  case,  that 
there  is  no  study  in  which  the  leading  principles  of 
arrangement  can  be  more  readily  comprehended  and 
remembered.  Scientific  names  may  not  be  so  easily 
retained  in  memory,  but  it  is  the  system,  and  not  the 
names,  which  is  of  the  most  importance.  It  is  however 
far  less  difficult  to  remember  technical  terms  than  is  often 
imagined,  especially  when  these  are  referred  to  their 
primitives,  and  their  original  signification  understood. 

In  exhibiting   some  of  the  advantages  of  the  study  of 

*  At  the  request  of  many  teachers  of  common  schools, the  author 
has  been  induced  to  commence  a  smaller  work,  which  may  be 
afforded  at  such  a  price  as  will  allow  of  general  use,  and  in  a 
style  adapted  to  the  capacities  of  children.  This  work  will  soon 
be  offered  to  the  public. 


BOTANY.  209 

botany,  I  shall  make  use  of  the  Introductory  Lecture  in 
the  work  to  which  I  have  just  referred. 

The  universe  consists  of  matter  and  mind.  By  the 
faculties  of  mind  with  which  God  has  endowed  us,  we 
are  able  to  examine  into  the  properties  of  the  material 
objects  by  which  we  are  surrounded. 

If  we  had  no  sciences,  nature  would  present  exactly 
the  same  phenomena  as  at  present.  The  heavenly 
bodies  would  move  with  equal  regularity,  and  preserve 
the  same  relative  situations,  although  no  system  of 
Astronomy  had  been  formed.  The  laws  of  gravity  and 
of  motion  would  operate  in  the  same  manner  as  at  pres* 
ent,  if  we  had  no  such  science  as  Natural  Philosophy. 
The  affinities  of  substances  for  each  other  were  the 
same,  before  the  science  of  Chemistry  existed,  as  they 
are  now.  It  is  an  important  truth,  and  one  which  can- 
not be  too  much  impressed  upon  the  mind  in  all  scien- 
tific investigations,  that  no  systems  of  man  can  change 
the  laws  and  operations  of  nature :  though  by  systems, 
we  are  enabled  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  these  laws  and 
relations. 

The  Deity  has  not  only  placed  before  us  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  objects,  but  has  given  to  our  minds  the 
power  of  reducing  them  into  classes,  so  as  to  form  beau- 
tiful and  regular  systems,  by  which  we  can  comprehend, 
under  a  few  terms,  the  vast  number  of  individual  things, 
which  would,  otherwise,  present  to  our  bewildered  minds 
a  confused  and  indiscriminate  mass.  This  power  of  the 
mind,  so  important  in  classification,  is  that  of  discover- 
ing resemblances.  We  perceive  two  objects,  we  have  an 
idea  of  their  resemblance,  and  we  give  a  common  name 
to  both ;  other  similar  objects  are  then  referred  to  the 
same  class,  or  receive  the  same  name.  A  child  sees  a 
flower  which  he  is  told  is  a  rose  ;  he  sees  anothor  resem- 
bling it,  and  nature  teaches  him  to  call  that  also  a  rose. 
On  this  operation  of  the  mind  depends  the  power  of 
forming  classes,  or  of  generalizing. 

Some  relations  or  resemblances  are  seen  at  the  first 
glance ;  others  are  not  discovered  until  after  close 
examination  and  reflection ;  but  the  most  perfect  classi- 
fication is  not  always  founded  upon  the  most  obvious 
resemblances.  A  person  ignorant  of  botany,  on  behold- 
18* 


210  BOTANY. 

ing  the  profusion  of  flowers  which  adorn  the  face  of  na- 
ture, would  discover  general  resemblances,  and  perhaps 
form  in  his  mind  some  order  of  arrangement ;  but  the 
system  of  botany  now  in  use,  neglecting  the  most  con- 
spicuous parts  of  the  flower,  is  founded  upon  the  obser- 
vation of  small  parts  of  it,  which  a  cpmmon  observer 
might  not  notice. 

System  is  necessary  in  every  science.  It  not  only 
assists  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  but  enables  us  to 
retain  what  is  thus  acquired ;  and,  by  the  laws  of  asso- 
ciation, to  call  forth  what  is  treasured  up  in  the  store- 
house of  the  mind.  System  is  important  not  only  in  the 
grave  and  elevated  departments  of  science,  but  is  essen- 
tial in  the  most  common  concerns  and  operations  of 
ordinary  life.  In  conducting  any  kind  of  business,  and 
in  the  arrangement  of  household  concerns,  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  success  of  the  orie,  and  to  the  comfort  of 
those  interested  in  the  other.  The  very  logical  and  sys- 
tematic arrangement  which  prevails  in  Botanical  science, 
has,  without  doubt,  a  tendency  to  induce  in  the  mind 
the  habit  and  love  of  order ;  which,  when  once  estab- 
lished, will  operate,  even  in  the  minutest  concerns. 
Whoever  traces  this  system,  through  its  various  connex- 
ions, by  a  gradual  progress  from  individual  plants  to 
general  classes,  until  the  whole  vegetable  world  seems 
brought  into  one  point  of  view  ;  and  then  descends  in 
the  same  methodical  manner,  from  generals  to  particu- 
lars, must  acquire  a  habit  of  arrangement,  and  a  per- 
ception of  order,  which  is  the  true  practical  logic. 

The  study  of  botany  seems  peculiarly  adapted  to 
females,  the  objects  of  its  investigation  are  beautiful  and 
delicate ;  its  pursuits,  leading  to  exercise  in  the  open 
air,  are  conducive  to  health  and  cheerfulness.  It  is  not 
a  sedentary  study  which  can  be  acquired  in  the  library, 
but  the  objects  of  the  science  are  scattered  over  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  along  the  banks  of  the  winding 
brooks,  on  the  borders  of  precipices,  the  sides  of  moun- 
tains, and  the  depths  of  the  forest. 

A  knowledge  of  botany  is  necessary  to  the  medical 
profession.  Our  Almighty  Benefactor,  in  bestowing 
upon  us  the  vegetable  tribes,  has  not  only  provided  a 
source  of  refined  enjoyment  in  the  contemplation  of 


BOTANY.  211 

their  beautiful  forms  and  colors ;  in  their  fragrance,  by 
which,  in  their  peculiar  language,  they  seem  to  hold 
secret  communion  with  our  minds;  He  has  not  only 
given  them  for  our  food  and  clothing,  but  with  kind, 
parental  care,  has,  in  them,  provided  powers  to  counter- 
act and  remove  the  diseases  to  which  mankind  are  sub- 
ject. For  many  ages  plants  were  the  only  medicines 
known,  or  used;  but  modern  discoveries  in  chemistry, 
by  forming  compounds  of  previously  existing  elements, 
have,  in  some  degree,  superseded  their  use.  Although 
the  science  of  medicine  has  received  much  additional 
light  from  chemistry,  it  may  perhaps  in  modern  days 
have  occupied  the  attention  of  medical  men  too  exclu- 
sively ;  inducing  them  to  toil  in  their  laboratories  to 
form  those  combinations  which  nature  had  done,  much 
more  perfectly,  in  the  plants  which  they  pass  unheeded. 
It  is  probable  that  the  medicinal  productions  of  the 
animal  and  mineral  kingdoms,  bear  but  a  small  propor- 
tion to  those  of  the  vegetable. 

When  our  forefathers  came  to  this  country,  they 
found  the  natives  in  possession  of  much  medical  know- 
ledge of  plants.  Having  no  remedies  prepared  by  scien- 
tific skill,  the  Indians  were  led,  by  necessity,  to  the  use 
of  those  which  nature  offered  them  ;  and  by  experience 
and  observation,  they  had  arrived  at  many  valuable  con- 
clusions as  to  the  qualities  of  plants.  Their  mode  of 
life,  leading  them  to  penetrate  the  shades  of  the  forest, 
and  to  climb  the  mountain  precipices,  naturally  associat- 
ed them  much  with  the  vegetable  world.  The  Indian 
woman,  the  patient  sharer  in  these  excursions,  was  led 
to  look  for  such  plants  as  she  might  use  for  the  diseases 
of  her  family.  Each  new  and  curious  plant,  though  not 
viewed  by  her  as  a  botanist  would  now  behold  it,  doubt- 
less was  regarded  with  scrutinizing  attention ;  the 
color,  taste,  and  smell,  were  carefully  remarked  as  indi- 
cations of  its  properties.  But  the  discoveries  and  obser- 
vations of  the  Indians  have  perished  with  themselves ; 
having  no  system  for  the  classification  or  description  of 
plants,  nor  any  written  language  by  which  such  a  sys- 
tem might  have  been  conveyed  to  others,  no  vestige,  but 
uncertain  tradition,  remains  of  their  knowledge  of  the 
medicinal  qualities  of  plants. 


212  BOTANY. 

The  study  of  nature  in  any  of  her  varieties  is  highly 
interesting  and  useful.  But  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
far  distant  from  us,  and  were  they  within  our  reach,  are 
too  mighty  for  us  to  grasp ;  our  feeble  minds  seem  over- 
whelmed in  the  contemplation  of  their  immensity. 

Animals,  though  affording  the  most  striking  marks  of 
designing  wisdom,  cannot  be  dissected  and  examined 
without  painful  emotions. 

The  vegetable  world  offers  a  boundless  field  of  inquiry, 
which  may  be  explored  with  the  most  pure  and  delight- 
ful emotions.  Here  the  Almighty  seems  to  manifest 
himself  to  us  with  less  of  that  dazzling  sublimity  which 
it  is  almost  painful  to  behold  in  His  more  magnificent 
creations;  and  it  might  almost  appear,  that  accomodat- 
ing  the  vegetable  world  to  our  capacities,  He  had  espe- 
cially designed  it  for  our  investigation  and  amusement. 

The  study  of  Botany  naturally  leads  to  greater  love 
and  reverence  for  the  Deity.  We  would  not  affirm  that 
it  does  in  reality  always  produce  this  effect;  for,  unhap- 
pily, there  are  some  minds  which,  though  quick  to  per- 
ceive the  beauties  of  nature,  seem,  blindly,  to  overlook 
Him  who  spread  them  forth.  They  can  admire  the 
gifts,  while  they  forget  the  Giver.  But  those  who  feel 
in  their  hearts  a  love  to  God,  and  who  see  in  the  natural 
world  the  workings  of  His  power,  can  look  abroad,  and, 
adopting  the  language  of  a  Christian  poet,  exclaim, 

'  My  Father  made  them  all.' 

In  following  the  course  laid  down  in  the  botanical  text- 
book now  used  in  the  Seminary,  the  pupil  is  first  intro- 
duced to  the  analytical  part  of  botany ;  she  is  presented 
with  flowers  of  the  first  ten  classes,  and  having  learned 
to  distinguish  them  scientifically,  is  then  introduced  to 
those  which  are  more  complex  in  their  relations,  until 
the  representatives  of  the  twenty-one  classes  of  vege- 
tables are  all  brought  under  review. 

After  having  learned  to  assign  plants  to  their  appro- 
priate classes,  the  pupil  is  taught  the  relations  of  each 
part  of  a  vegetable  to  the  whole  organized  being,  the 
external  varieties  of  roots,  stems,  leaves,  corollas,  &,c., 
with  their  physiological  uses.  In  the  third  part  of  the 


MINERALOGY.  213 

Lectures  on  Botany,  the  pupil  is  taught  the  various  sys- 
tems which  have  at  different  times  been  introduced  by 
men  of  science,  with  the  rules  of  classification  and 
arrangement  which  have  been  deduced  from  the  nature 
of  the  mind,  and  of  the  objects  to  be  classed;  and  made 
more  minutely  acquainted  with  the  system  of  Linnaeus, 
and  of  the  natural  history  of  individual  plants. 

Lastly  is  given  a  general  view  of  the  vegetable  world, 
as  respects  geographical  situation,  and  their  successive 
changes  during  the  year,  their  habits,  food,  diseases, 
&/c.,  with  observations  upon  the  relations  which  the 
vegetable  world,  bears  to  the  other  kingdoms  of  nature. 

For  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  botanical  science,  I 
must  refer  you  to  some  of  the  last  lectures  in  the  work, 
whose  outlines  I  have  now  laid  before  you.  Before 
leaving  this  subject,  I  must  again  repeat  what  has  so 
often  been  urged  upon  you,  that  botany  is  a  practical 
science ;  that  during  the  season  of  flowers,  you  should 
diligently  collect  specimens  of  every  new  species  that 
appears.  The  technical  descriptions  in  the  latter  part 
of  your  text  book,  will  not  be  found  sufficiently  compre- 
hensive for  those  who  pursue  the  science  thoroughly.  To 
such,  the  manual  of  Professor  Eaton,  or  some  other  mere- 
ly descriptive  work,  will  be  necessary.* 


LECTURE  XVIII. 

Mineralogy  and  Geology. 

1  Lo  !  Vanity,  with  dazzling  gems  adorned, 

Flaunts  proudly  by  : 
While  Science  pores  upon  a  specimen 
Rough  from  the  bosom  of  its  native  mine.' 

THE  science  of  Mineralogy  has  not  yet  received  from 
our  sex  that  attention   which  it  deserves,  or  which  it  is 

*  The  science  of  botany,  it  will  be  seen,  is  more  briefly  treated 
of  in  these  lectures  than  most  other  branches  of  education  ;  this 


214  MINERALOGY. 

undoubtedly  destined  to  command.  We  do  not  expect, 
or  wish  to  see  you  devoting  that  time  to  this  study 
which  may  be  needed  for  other  pursuits ;  but  a  very 
little  attention  to  the  subject,  especially  after  you  have 
become  acquainted  with  chemistry,  will  enable  you  to 
comprehend  the  general  features  of  the  science,  and  will 
render  cabinets  of  minerals  something  more  to  you  than 
collections  of  glittering  stones.  Let  us  suppose  (a  very 
common  case)  a  coterie  of  fine  ladies  visiting  a  scientific 
collection,  and  while  the  learned  professor  or  proprietor  is 
politely  explaining  to  them  the  properties  and  peculiari- 
ties of  the  substances,  or  the  mode  of  arrangement 
which  he  has  adopted,  they  are  evidently  paying  no 
attention  to  all  this,  but  exclaiming  to  each  other  '  how 
sweet  this  isj  (  how  splendid,'  '  what  beautiful  ornaments 
that  would  make,' — or  perhaps  lounging  away  the  time, 
with  entire  indifference  as  to  the  objects  which  they  had 
professedly  come  to  examine.  Now  all  that  I  plead  for, 
is,  that  you  may  have  enough  of  science  to  lead  you  to 
wish  for  more ;  enough  to  render  you  interesting  com- 
panions to  men  of  science.  They  will  not  generally  ex- 
pect more  of  you,  than  that  you  should  be  attentive 
listeners,  or  be  able  to  suggest  subjects  for  their  explana- 
tion. Yet  should  you  chance  to  become  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  any  branch  of  science  to  enable  you  to 
impart  information,  I  know  of  no  law,  either  of  morality 
or  propriety,  which  would  be  violated  by  your  modestly 
imparting  that  knowledge  to  others  ;  neither  do  I  think 
any  man  of  real  science  would  be  displeased  to  find  a 
lady  capable  of  supporting  conversation  on  scientific 
subjects. 

I  shall  now,  as  briefly  as  possible,  give  you  some  of  the 

is  owing  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  study,  which,  in  order  to 
he  understood,  should  be  illustrated  either  by  drawings  or  natural 
flowers.  A  mere  outline  of  botany  can  be  of  little  use  to  those 
who  are  unacquainted  with  the  science  :  to  those  who  have  a 
practical  knowledge  of  it,  compendiums  are  neither  very  inte- 
resting or  useful.  Like  the  objects  of  the  study,  botany  needs  to 
be  seen  as  a  whole,  in  order  to  show  its  beauty  and  utility.  Those 
who  only  look  at  the  Greek  names  of  classes  and  orders,  not  un- 
frequently  acquire  a  prejudice  against  the  science,  which  one  ju- 
dicious lecture  from  a  practical  botanist  might  remove. 


MINERALOGY.  215 

leading  traits  in  the  science  of  mineralogy,  with  its  sub- 
ordinate branch,  geology. 

Minerals  are  inorganized  bodies,  possessing  neither 
life,  nor  the  power  of  voluntary  motion.  Mineralogy 
teaches  the  properties  and  relations  of  minerals,  and  the 
method  of  describing  and  arranging  them  :  it  compre- 
hends not  only  the  study  of  solid  bodies,  such  as  earths 
and  metals,  but  gasses  and  liquids — of  all  matter  that  is 
not  either  animal  or  vegetable. 

Minerals  are  homogeneous,  (simple)  or  heterogeneous 
(compound).  Simple  minerals  are  so  called,  not  in  refer- 
ence to  the  elements  which  compose  them,  for  in  this 
view  few  are  simple  ;  but  as  they  appear  to  the  eye  to 
consist  of  one  uniform  mass.  The  simple  minerals  only 
are  the  subjects  with  which  mineralogy  is  concerned. 
Thus  lime  is  simple  in  its  structure,  though  chemically 
considered,  it  consists  of  carbonic  acid  and  lime. 

Compound  Minerals  present  to  the  eye  an  aggregation 
of  different  substances ;  as  granite,  which  is  composed  of 
quartz,  mica,  and  feldspar.  The  compound  minerals 
usuaDy  exist  in  large  masses  ;  as  rocks,  and  mountains  : 
the  study  of  these  constitute  geology.  Some  knowledge 
of  the  simple  minerals  is  necessary  before  commencing 
geological  studies.  *  The  distinctions  which  exist  be- 
tween different  rocks  must  depend  on  the  nature  of  the 
simple  minerals  which  enter  into  their  compositions,  or 
on  the  mode  of  aggregation,  and  the  diversity  of  aspect, 
exhibited  by  compound  minerals,  even  when  bearing 
the  same  name,  is  so  great,  as  to  render  it  necessary 
very  critically  to  examine  the  simple  minerals  of  which 
they  are  composed.'* 

We  perceive  then  the  intimate  relation  between  min- 
eralogy and  geology.  Mineralogy  has  also  a  very 
intimate  connexion  with  chemistry.  A  mineralogist 
may  examine  all  the  external  characters  of  a  min- 
eral, hardness,  color,  fracture,  lustre,  specific  gravity, 
&c.,  and  according  to  circumstances,  give  it  a  name 
and  place  in  his  classification ;  but,  in  order  to  know 
its  constituent  elements,  its  degree  of  fusibility,  the 

*  Cleaveland's  Mineralogy. 


216  MINERALOGY. 

manner  in  which  it  is  affected  by  acids  and  other  sub- 
stances, chemistry  must  afford  its  aid.  Berzelius,  a 
celebrated  Swedish  mineralogist,  remarks  that  each 
science,  in  order  to  be  perfect  should  contain  with- 
in itself  all  that  is  necessary  to  its  full  developement, 
and  yet  so  far  from  this,  at  the  present  day  there  is  a 
connexion  more  or  less  intimate  between  all  the  branches 
of  human  knowledge,  so  that  they  may  be  considered  as 
forming  one  universal  science,  the  knowledge  of  any  one 
branch,  throwing  light  upon  all  the  others. 

One  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  branches  of 
Mineralogy,  is  the  study  of  crystals,  or  as  it  is  termed 
crystallography.  The  very  singular  and  mysterious 
agency  which  operates  in  the  atoms  of  different  substan- 
ces, producing  in  each  its  determinate  form,  as  of  cube, 
prism,  rhomboid,  &c.,  is  no  less  wonderful  than  the 
phenomenon  of  the  vital  principle  in  organized  beings. 

The  mode  of  obtaining  crystals  of  alum,  blue  vitriol, 
&/c.,  for  baskets  and  other  ornamental  work,  is  familiar 
to  many  ladies :  they  know  that  the  mineral  must  first 
be  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  solution  slowly  evaporated, 
that  the  particles  of  alum  or  other  substance  separating 
from  the  water,  will  unite  and  form  little  crystals  which 
float  on  the  surface,  until  their  weight,  increased  by  the 
accretion  of  new  particles,  causes  them  to  fall  through 
the  liquid. 

Alum  (sulphate  of  alumite  and  potash]  forms  crys- 
tals of  eight  sides,  or  octahedrons. 

Blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper)  forms  prismatic  crys- 
tals of  four,  six,  or  more  sides. 

Common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium,  or  muriate  of 
soda)  crystallizes  in  cubes.  The  crystalization  may  be 
disturbed,  so  as  not  to  present  the  primitive  form  of  the 
crystals  ;  but  it  is  ascertained  that  every  mineral  has  a 
tendency  to  its  peculiar  form  of  crystalization.  The 
ultimate  atom  of  the  mineral  is  supposed  to  be  of  the 
same  figure  as  the  primitive  form  of  its  crystal. 

The  term  crystal  is  from  the  Greek  krustallos,  which 
signifies  ice.  The  ancients  believed  that  crystallized 
quartz,  or  rock  crystal,  was  water  congealed  by  extreme 
cold.  Mineralogists  were  for  some  time  divided  as  to  the 


MINERALOGY.  217 

proper  methods  of  classing  the  substances  which  were 
objects  of  their  investigation.  While  some  contended 
that  the  species  of  minerals,  should  be  formed  wholly 
upon  their  external  characters  ;  others  as  strongly  insist- 
ed upon  an  arrangement  founded  wholly  on  chemical 
principles,  or  the  constituent  elements  of  the  minerals. 
The  wiser  course  has  of  late  been  allowed  of  permitting 
mineralogy  to  receive  the  light  which  chemistry  is  able  to 
throw  upon  it,  without  relinquishing  any  advantage 
which  it  may  otherwise  possess. 

In  arranging  a  cabinet  of  minerals,  it  is  necessary 
to  fix  on  some  method  of  classification,  as  a  guide.* 
Cleaveland  makes  four  classes  of  minerals  ;  1st,  substan- 
ces not  metallic,  composed  entirely,  or  in  part,  of  an  acid. 
This  class,  he  divides  into  four  orders ;  these  he  divides 
into  genera,  and  these  again  into  species. 

The  2d  class  is  Earthy  Compounds,  or  Stones. 
The  3d  class  is  Combustibles. 
The  4th  class  is  Ores. 

If  you  have  but  few  substances  at  first,  and  commence 
arranging  these  scientifically,  your  interest  in  the  subject 
will  increase,  and  your  collection  will  no  doubt  receive 
additions  from  various  quarters.  Every  walk  and  every 
journey,  may  present  you  with  something  for  your  cabi- 
net, and  a  new  interest  will  thus  be  given  to  the  face  of 
nature.  I  should  here  observe,  that  you  must  not  expect 
to  be  able,  without  assistance,  to  ascertain  the  name  of  a 
mineral,  as  easily  as  you  find  by  botanical  analysis  the 
name  of  a  plant.  In  mineralogy,  you  must  at  first  depend 
chiefly  on  the  opinions  of  those  who  have  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  science;  that  is,  you  will  need  at  first  to 
have  a  practical  mineralogist  label  your  specimens,  except 
in  the  case  of  such  common  substances  as  you  already 
know  by  their  popular  names.  After  having  seen  and 
handled  a  mineral,  and  placed  it  in  its  proper  situation 
in  your  cabinet,  you  will  seldom  forget  its  appearance 
and  name ;  you  will,  by  attention,  acquire  an  astonishing 

*  Cleaveland's  Mineralogy  is  perhaps  more  generally  followed 
than  any  other  in  this  country.     Emmons's  is  a  less  expensive 
work,  and  very  clear  and  concise. 
19 


218  GEOLOGY. 

quickness  and  facility  in  distinguishing  specimens  ;  and 
names  which  at  first  seemed  hard  and  difficult  to  be 
remembered,  will  become  as  familiar  as  the  words  chair, 
table,  &c. 

We  will  suppose  you  have  a  specimen  of  the  anihra* 
cite  coal,  called  Lehigh,  Schuylkill,  &c.  according  to  the 
name  of  the  river  near  which  it  is  obtained.  You  wish 
to  know  where  to  place  this  mineral  in  your  collection, 
and  to  ascertain  its  character.  In  the  first  place,  you 
must  consider  in  which  class  it  is  placed.  The  third  class 
(in  Cleaveland's  work)  contains  combustibles;  this  sub- 
stance being  a  combustible,  you  will  perceive  must  be 
in  the  third  class  of  minerals ;  where  you  will  find  the 
species  hydrogen  gas,  sulphur,  bitumen,  amber,  and  dia- 
mond which  burns  brilliantly  in  oxygen  gas ;  and  next  to 
diamond,  you  find  anthracite,  which  is  the  sixth  species 
in  the  class.  You  are  then  directed  to  the  page  which 
contains  a  minute  description  of  the  substance  in  ques- 
tion, with  its  varieties,  localities,  and  uses. 

In  this  way,  you  may  proceed  with  any  other  mineral, 
whose  common  name  is  known  to  you  ;  but  without  much 
practical  knowledge,  you  will  not  acquire  sufficient  accu- 
racy in  chemical  analyses,  or  in  ascertaining  the  specific 
gravity,  and  some  other  external  characters  of  minerals, 
to  be  able  to  learn,  by  your  own  investigations,  the  names 
of  such  minerals  as  are  unknown  to  you. 

Geology. 

To  females,  geology  is  chiefly  important,  by  its  effect 
in  enlarging  their  sphere  of  thought,  rendering  them 
more  interesting  as  companions  to  men  of  science,  and 
better  capable  of  instructing  the  young.  Especially  does 
geology  afford  important  aid  to  religion  by  confirming  the 
truth  of  revelation.  Infidels  are  confounded  by  the  un- 
deniable truth,  that  as  the  structure  of  the  earth  is  investi- 
gated, and  the  secrets  of  its  interior  brought  to  light,  the 
strictest  coincidence  is  observed  between  them,  and  the 
facts  recorded  in  Scripture.  '  I  believe/  says  Professor 
Silliman,  'the  period  is  not  far  distant,  when  geology 
will  be  admitted  into  the  train  of  her  elder  sister,  astron- 


GEOLOGY.  219 

omy,  and  that  both  will  be  eventually  hailed  as  the  friends 
and  allies  of  revealed  religion.' 

The  physical  history  of  the  Deluge  is  everywhere  in- 
scribed upon  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  upon  its  chasms 
and  cliffs,  its  valleys  and  mountains.  For  a  knowledge 
of  the  moral  cause  of  these  convulsions,  we  must  look  to 
the  Scriptures ;  we  there  find  that  '  God  seeing  the  wick- 
edness of  man  was  great  on  the  earth,  that  every  imagi- 
nation of  the  thoughts  of  his  heart  was  only  evil  continu- 
ally, and  that  the  earth  was  filled  with  violence,  resolved 
to  destroy  man  by  a  flood  of  waters.'  We  find  that  '  the 
waters  prevailed  upon  the  earth  an  hundred  and  fifty 
days,  and  that  all  the  hills  under  the  whole  heaven  were 
covered.' 

This  one  grand  proof  of  the  Scriptures,  offered  by  geo- 
logical science,  is  enough  to  entitle  it  to  the  attention  of 
the  Christian,  for  it  furnishes  sensible  demonstration, 
broad  and  stable  as  the  earth,  of  the  truth  of  that  book, 
which  traces  man  from  bis  creation  and  first  planting 
upon  this  globe,  and  carries  him  into  eternity,  raising 
the  curtain  between  him  and  the  invisible  world  of  spir- 
its. Were  it  not  for  this  book,  we  should  have  no  knowl- 
edge but  that  afforded  by  the  dim  and  uncertain  light  of 
nature,  that  our  souls  were  immortal,  and  that  man  dieth 
not  like  { the  beasts  that  perish.'  Geology  leads  us  to 
view  the  globe  upon  a  great  scale,  to  meditate  upon  the 
bold  and  romantic  scenes  of  nature,  to  survey  mountains 
and  valleys,  as  sunk  or  raised  by  great  convulsions  of  the 
earth,  to  trace  the  hand  of  time  in  shattering  and  crumb- 
ling the  hardest  rocks ;  to  mark  the  little  brook  and  the 
majestic  river,  alike  bearing  in  their  course  the  sands 
thus  formed,  and  depositing  them  upon  their  banks,  or  at 
their  mouths,  thus  forming  new  land  in  the  dominions  of 
water ;  and  again,  to  see  lands  in  their  turn  inundated, 
and  overflowed. 

To  one  acquainted  with  geological  facts,  and  interest- 
ed in  the  science,  even  the  barren  rock,  the  bleak  moun- 
tain, and  the  gloomy  mine,  are  objects  of  attention.  An- 
cient buildings  and  venerable  ruins  are  interesting,  both 
as  triumphs  of  the  art  of  man,  and  memorials  of  the  de- 
cay of  his  Jabor,  but  mountains  and  precipices  are  the 


220  GEOLOGY. 

workmanship  of  Almighty  hands.  Volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes are  overwhelming  manifestations  of  His  power. 
In  beholding  these  phenomena,  we  feel  indeed  that  *  the 
Lord  reigneth,  and  is  clothed  with  majesty.' 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  give  a  view  of  all  the  impor- 
tant principles  of  geology,  but  present  you  with  a  very 
general  sketch  of  the  science,  hoping  it  may  not  be  unin- 
teresting to  those  who  already  possess  some  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  and  may  induce  others  to  devote  some  at- 
tention to  this  interesting  branch  of  natural  science. 

The  elementary  substances  which  form  the  solid  mat- 
ter of  the  globe,  are,  1st,  Earths;  2d,  Metals;  3d,  Inflam- 
mable Principles  ;  and  4th,  Alkalies. 

THE  EARTHS  are  Sttex. 

Jllumine. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 
PRINCIPAL  METALS.  Iron. 

Manganese. 
INFLAMMABLE  PRINCIPLES.  Sulphur. 

Carbon. 
ALKAL.IES.  Potash. 

Soda. 

These  are  the  elementary  substances  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  the  principal  masses  of  minerals  found 
upon  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  in  the  interior  as  far 
as  man  has  yet  penetrated ;  gold,  silver,  diamond  and 
other  rare  minerals  are  found  in  smaller  masses,  and  in 
veins  constituting  but  one  part  in  twenty  of  the  solid  parts 
of  the  globe. 

Earths. 

Silex,  or  Siliceous  earth,  exists  nearly  pure  in  flint  and 
quartz  ;  it  produces  a  great  degree  of  hardness  in  all 
stones,  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  Silex  forms  a  part  of 
almost  all  rocks  and  stones.  Alumine  (Argilla)  or  pure 
clay,  is  seldom  found,  although  it  is  very  common  in  a 
mixed  state  ;  it  is  soft  and  smooth  to  the  touch.  Rocks 
which  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  alumine  are 
termed  argillaceous.  Lime  (Calx.)  This  earth  combined 
with  an  acid  called  carbonic,  forms  lime-stone,  marble 
and  chalk,  (carbonates  oflime)  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  different  degrees  of  hardness.  Lime  united 


GEOLOGY.  221 

with  sulphuric  acid,  forms  a  stone  called  gypsum,  (sul- 
phate oflime)  which  is  softer  than  limestone,  and  does 
not,  like  that,  effervesce  with  acids.  Lime,  mixed  with 
common  clay,  forms  marl. 

Magnesia  is  seldom  found  pure  in  nature ;  it  forms  an 
ingredient  in  some  rocks,  to  which  it  communicates  a 
smoothness,  a  striped  texture,  and  sometimes  a  greenish 
color. 

Metals. 

Iron  forms  a  part  of  many  rocks  and  stones,  giving 
them  a  variety  of  coloring,  and  increasing  their  weight. 
Manganese  communicates  to  rocks  a  dull  reddish  color, 
inclining  to  purple,  and  a  dry  and  burnt-like  appearance. 

Inflammable  Substances. 

Sulphur  is  found  in  large  masses,  combined  with  oxy- 
gen, forming  sulphuric  acid ;  it  unites  with  lime,  and  forms 
gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris. 

Carbon,  or  Charcoal,  is  a  constituent  of  many  slate 
rocks,  giving  them  a  dark  color ;  it  is  the  principal  con- 
stituent of  that  kind  of  coal  which  is  found  in  beds.  Car- 
bon combined  with  oxygen,  forming  carbonic  acid,  is 
combined  with  all  limestone  rocks. 

Alkalies. 

Potash  and  Soda.  These  alkalies  do  not  exist  in  rocks 
to  a  great  degree,  but  soda  forms  an  important  constituent 
of  the  water  of  the  ocean  and  rock  salts. 

Besides  the  elementary  substances  above  enumerated, 
we  will  mention  muriatic  acid,  which,  combined  with 
soda,  forms  salt ;  and  phosphoric  acid,  which,  combined 
with  lime,  is  a  principal  constituent  of  animal  bones;  the 
latter  acid  is  found  in  some  limestone  beds,  but  rarely 
occurs  in  the  mineral  kingdom. 

The  few  elementary  substances  which  we  have  now 
described,  form,  either  separately,  or  combined,  all  the 
simple  minerals  which  compose  rocks. 

You  will  find  it  difficult,  without  some  knowledge  of 
chemistry,  to  understand  in  what  manner  these  elemen- 
tary substances  combine  with  others,  forming  a  great 


222  GEOLOGY. 

variety  of  minerals,  or  rather  you  may  be  surprised  that 
when  closely  combined,  they  can  be  separated  from  the 
materials  with  which  they  are  united.  The  examination 
of  the  elementary  bodies,  Earths,  Metals,  Inflammable 
Principles,  and  Alkalies,  properly  belongs  to  the  depart- 
ment of  Chemistry  ;  and  the  study  of  simple  minerals, 
belongs  to  the  science  of  Mineralogy. 

It  is  difficult  to  procure  pure  specimens  of  all  the  ele- 
mentary principles,  but  the  simple  minerals  are  very 
common,  and  should  be  procured  in  the  commencement 
of  geological  studies.  The  most  important  simple  mine- 
rals, which  enter  into  the  formation  of  rocks,  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Quartz.  Hornblende. 

Felspar.  Limestone. 

Mica.  Gypsum. 

Talc.  Slate,  or  Argillite. 

Chlorite. 

These  minerals  are  termed  the  alphabet  of  geology, 
and  you  could  no  more  learn  to  read  words,  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  letters  which  form  them,  than  you  could 
learn  to  distinguish  the  different  rocks,  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  simple  minerals  of  which  they  are  composed, 
We  will  now  examine  the  most  striking  characteristics  of 
these  minerals. 

1.  Quartz.     This  is  the  hardest  mineral  of  which  rocks 
are  composed  ;  it  strikes  fire  when  struck  with  steel ;  it 
is  commonly  white,  though  sometimes  red,  brown,  or  yel- 
lowish, and  sometimes  transparent.     It  is  composed  of 
silex,  with  a  small  portion  of  alumine.     It  is  infusible,  or 
cannot  be  melted  when  unmixed ;  but  with  soda  or  any 
other  alkali,  it  melts  easily  and  forms  glass.     Quartz  ex- 
ists in  veins,  and  sometimes  in  large  beds ;  even  whole 
mountains  are  found  composed  of  this  mineral,  in  grains 
united    without    any    cement,    called    granular   quartz. 
Combined  with  alumine  and  iron,  quartz  forms  jasper. 

2.  Felspar  is  less  hard  than  quartz,  is  more  brittle, 
and  possesses  a  shining  lustre.     It  is  of  various  colors, 
white,  yellowish,  green,  and   flesh-colored.    Felspar  con- 
tains more  of  alumine  and  less  of  silex  than  quartz,  with 
13  parts  in  a  hundred,  of  potash. 


GEOLOGY.  223 

3.  Mica  consists  of  very  thin  glittering  leaves,  (lamina) 
which  may  be  easily  separated  with  a  knife.     Mica  is  of 
different  colors,  white,  black,  and  sometimes  yellow,  like 
gold  ;  for  which  it  has  been  mistaken  by  those  who  only 
judge  of  minerals  by  a  superficial  observation. 

4.  Talc.  This  is  similar  in  many  respects  to  mica;  the 
plates  are  not  like  mica,  elastic ;  it  is  usually  of  a  green 
color,  sometimes  of  a  silvery  white ;  it  feels  smooth  like 
soap,  to  the  touch. 

5.  Chlorite,  (derived  from  a  Greek  word,  cJiloros,  sig- 
nifying green)  is  of  a  green  color,  and  often  passes  by 
insensible  gradations  into  talc  ;  it  contains  less  of  silex 
than  is  found  in  either  mica  or  talc,  but  more  of  magne- 
sia and  the  oxide  of  iron,  to  which  its  owes  its  color. 

6.  Hornblende  is  of  a  blackish,  or  dark  green  color, 
heavier   than  quartz  or  felspar,   but  not  so  hard,  when 
scratched  with  a  sharp  pointed  instrument ;  the  streak  is 
a  light  green ;  this  mineral  is  sometimes  found  in  large 
masses,  forming  entire  mountains,  but  more  frequently  it 
is  found  as  a  part  of  compound  rocks,  called  trap  rocks, 
the  origin  of  which  has,  among  geologists,  given  rise  to 
various   opinions.     Hornblende    contains    more    of    the 
oxide  of  iron,  than  any  of  the  simple  minerals;  for  this 
reason,  it  is  more  deeply  colored. 

A  very  common  mineral  called  serpentine,  from  its  spot- 
ted color,  resembling  the  serpent's  skin,  is  formed  by  a 
combination  of  hornblende  with  talc,  or  chlorite,  often 
passing  by  insensible  gradations  into  one  or  the  other  of 
these  minerals. 

7.  Limestone,  or  Carbonate  of  Lime,  when  pure,  is 
composed  of  lime  and  carbonic  acid,  in  the  proportions 
of  fifty-seven  parts  lime,  and  forty-three  carbonic  acid;  but 
the  limestone  is  often  combined  with  magnesia,  alumine, 
silex,  or  iron.     All  limestones  may  be  scraped  with  a 
knife;  they  effervesce  when  acids  are  applied  to  their 
surface :  this  latter  property  is  an  important  test  of  the 
presence  of  lime  in  rocks.  There  are  a  great  many  varie- 
ties of  limestone  rocks,  from  the  hardest  marble  to  chalk. 
Gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  is  of  a  whitish  color ;  it  is 
much  softer  than  carbonate  of  lime  ;  it  is  found  in  beds, 
but  not  constituting  rocks  and  mountains,  like  limestone. 


224  GEOLOGY. 

It  is,  as  its  chemical  name,  sulphate  of  lime,  would  de- 
note, a  compound  of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  also 
called  plaster-stone,  and,  from  the  pi  ace  where  it  was  first 
discovered,  plaster  of  Paris. 

8  Slate,  or  Argillite,  (in  German  called  schistus)  is 
of  a  bluish  or  gray  color,  with  a  silky  lustre ;  the  struc- 
ture is  such,  that  in  general  it  admits  of  being  split  into 
thin  plates,  as  in  the  slate  which  is  used  for  the  roofs  of 
houses,  and  in  writing  slates.  By  being  united  with  a 
greater  portion  of  carbon,  it  passes  into  a  soft,  dark,  slaty 
bed,  called  shale. 

We  have  now  enumerated  the  elementary  principles 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  minerals,  and  con- 
sidered the  simple  minerals,  which,  either  separately 
or  combined,  form  rocks  and  mountains.  In  order 
to  know  minerals,  specimens  must  be  examined,  and 
carefully  compared  with  descriptions ;  so  that  you  can, 
without  any  difficulty,  distinguish  a  piece  of  quartz,  or 
mica,  or  any  of  the  other  simple  minerals,  and  can  also 
recognize  them  when  you  find  them  in  a  state  of  combi- 
nation with  others.  This  then  will  be  the  first  stage  in 
your  geological  study  to  know  the  elementary  principles, 
and  the  simple  minerals ;  and  to  procure  specimens  of 
the  latter,  your  first  step  towards  collecting  a  geological 
cabinet.  You  will  of  course  understand,  that  each  speci- 
men is  to  be  labelled  and  arranged  in  the  order  in  which 
these  have  been  described. 

We  will  now  explain  to  you,  how  the  simple  minerals 
just  examined  are  combined  to  form  the  compounds 
which  constitute  rocks  and  mountains.  You  must,  howev- 
er, recollect  that  in  many  cases,  these  simple  minerals 
themselves  are  found  in  large  masses ;  rocks  and  even 
mountains  of  quartz  are  known  to  exist ;  limestone  under 
various  forms,  often  that  of  pure  carbonate,  is  said  to 
constitute  about  one-eighth  of  the  known  substance  of 
the  earth.  Slate,  or  argillite,  in  nearly  a  simple  state, 
forms  rocks  and  mountains ;  but  there  are  compound 
rocks  to  be  considered,  which  in  the  structure  of  the 
earth  are  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  simple 
minerals. 


GEOLOGY.  225 

Compound  RocJcs. 

Granite.  Here  is  a  piece  of  a  rock,  called  granite; 
you  will  perceive  three  distinct  substances,  which  you 
will  recognize  to  be  quartz,  mica,  and  felspar:  the 
quartz  is  white,  and  has  a  crystalline  appearance ;  it 
seems  to  consist  of  irregular  grains,  or,  according  to  the 
geological  term,  it  is  granular .*  The  mica  is  distin- 
guished by  its  shining  black  scales,  which  you  can  easily 
divide  by  the  point  of  a  penknife.  The  felspar  is  here 
flesh-colored ;  it  seems  to  consist  of  finer  particles  than 
the  quartz,  resembling  the  rough  edge  of  procelain 
ware. 

You  must  not,  however,  expect  to  find  exactly  the 
same  appearances  in  every  specimen  of  granite ;  some- 
times the  quartz  is  gray,  or  smoky,  the  mica  varying  in 
color  through  various  gradations,  from  a  silvery  white  to 
black,  and  the  felspar  is  often  of  a  snowy  whiteness. 
Granite  also  varies  in  its  constituent  parts.  We  some- 
times find  talc  in  the  place  of  mica,  forming  Talcy 
granite,  chlorite  forming  Chloride  Granite,  and  horn- 
blend,  forming  Sienite.} 

Gneiss.  This  name  was  given  to  the  rock  we  are  now 
to  examine,  by  German  miners ;  it  resembles  granite,  in 
being  composed  of  the  same  materials,  but  with  less 
felspar  and  quartz,  and  these  in  grains  finer  and  less 
distinct  than  in  granite.  The  mica  is  often  arranged 
in  thin  leaves, J  or  layers  ;  the  perfect  gneiss  rocks  may 
be  split  in  the  direction  of  the  leaves  of  mica. 

Although  between  a  perfect  specimen  of  gneiss  and 
one  of  granite,  we  might  perceive  a  marked  difference, 
yet  when  the  granite  appears  in  fine  grains  with  more 
of  mica  and  less  of  felspar,  it  passes  into  gneiss,  and  it 
is  by  no  means  easy  to  ascertain  the  exact  point  where 
the  one  passes  into  the  other. 

Mica  Slate  is  composed  chiefly  of  quartz  and  mica, 
the  latter  being  most  abundant,  often  reflecting  the  rays 

*  This  is  said  to  have  given  rise  to  the  name  Granite. 

t  So  named  from  Sienna,  in  Egypt,  where  this  rock  was  an- 
ciently used  for  monuments. 

t  This  kind  of  structure  is  called  foliated,  from  the  Latin  word 
folium,  a  leaf. 


226  GEOLOGY. 

of  light  with  much  brilliancy.  This  rock  is  more  slaty 
than  gneiss :  the  layers  of  mica  are  sometimes  contorted 
or  bent  out  of  a  straight  course.  Mica  slate  sometimes 
varies  into  gneiss  and  granite,  though  in  its  perfect  state 
its  character  may  be  easily  recognized. 

The  three  rocks  which  we  have  now  examined,  viz. 
granite,  geniss,  and  mica  slate,  are,  as  you  see,  all  com- 
posed of  similar  ingredients,  but  in  different  proportions 
and  differently  arranged ;  they  form  a  great  portion  of 
the  principal  mountain  ranges  upon  the  face  of  the 
globe. 

Having  now  instructed  you  in  such  preliminary  know- 
ledge as  seemed  necessary  to  enable  you  to  comprehend 
the  general  principles  of  the  science,  I  shall  now  offer 
the  following  outline  of  geology. 

Geology  is  the  science  which  exhibits  the  structure  of 
the  globe,  and  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  as 
far  as  they  have  been  revealed  to  human  observation. 
It  is  supposed  by  most  geologists  that  the  materials  of 
the  earth  were  once  in  a  fluid  state,  and  that  the  heaviest 
minerals  took  the  lowest  place.  It  appears  evident  that 
the  earth  very  gradually  became  fitted  for  the  habitation 
of  men  and  animals.  The  six  days  of  the  Creation, 
spoken  of  in  the  first  of  Genesis,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  six  periods  of  time,  of  a  length  which  must  have 
comprehended  many  ages.  That  the  day  spoken  of  in 
Scripture  was  neither  a  period  of  twentyrfour  hours  or 
from  sun-rise  to  sun-set,  is  manifest  not  only  from  geo- 
logical observation,  but  from  the  language  of  the  bible. 
After  enumerating  the  various  days  or  periods  of  the 
creation,  the  sacred  historian  speaking  of  them  all  under 
one  general  head  says,  '  In  the  day  in  which  God  made 
the  world,'  &/c.  It  is  also  said  in  scripture  that  '  with 
the  Lord  a  thousand  years  are  as  one  day,  and  one  day 
as  a  thousand  years/ 

Without  attempting  to  go  minutely  into  the  subject  of 
the  earth's  formation  as  explained  and  taught  by  mod- 
ern geology,  I  shall  merely  notice  a  few  of  its  most 
prominent  facts  and  principles. 


GEOLOGY.  227 

It  is  found  to  be  a  fact  that  there  is  a  class  of  rocks, 
the  materials  of  which  are  heavier  and  more  compact 
than  any  other,  and  which  never  contain  any  remains 
of  animals  or  vegetables ;  they  evidently  appear  to  have 
lain  below  all  the  rock  formations  which  have  been  dis- 
covered. These  are  called  primitive  rocks,  being,  as 
it  is  supposed,  the  first  formed*  They  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

First  Class  of  Rocks. 

Granite,  Granular  Quartz, 

Gneiss,  Granular  Lime  Rock, 

Mica  Slate,  Sparry  Lime  Rock, 

Hornblende  Rock,  Primitive  Argillite. 
Talcose  Rock, 

Granite,  as  has  been  remarked,  is  composed  of  quartz, 
felspar,  and  mica ;  it  is  found  in  vast  quantities  in  many 
countries ;  it  constitutes  a  large  portion  of  many  of  the 
highest  mountains ;  it  forms  a  siliceous  soil,  not  favor- 
able to  vegetation,  and  makes  a  beautiful  and  durable 
building  stone. 

Genciss.  This  rock  is  composed  of  the  same  mate- 
rials as  granite,  viz.  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica ;  but  the 
mica  is  arranged  in  parallel  layers. 

Mica  Slate  is  composed  chiefly  of  quartz  and  mica; 
the  mica  usually  predominates.  It  disintegrates  more 
rapidly  than  granite  or  gneiss. 

Hornblende  Rock  consists  of  hornblende  and  felspar; 
when  the  felspar  is  in  disseminated  masses,  it  is  called 
Sienite.  The  predominant  color  of  the  rock  is  green, 
sometimes  inclining  to  brown.  The  sienite  variety  is 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  and  forms  beautiful  pieces 
for  ornaments. 

Talcose  ROCK,  is  an  aggregate  of  talc  and  fine  grains 
of  quartz,  and  generally  some  mica.  It  is  a  slaty  rock, 
and  of  a  silver-gray  color. 

Granular  Quartz  is  made  up  of  grains  of  quartz, 
without  any  appearance  of  cement :  when  white,  its  sand 
is  used  in  making  glass. 

Granular  Lime  Rock  is  made  up  of  grains  hav- 
ing a  crystalline  appearance :  it  receives  a  high  polish, 


228  GEOLOGY. 

and  is  much  used  for  monuments,  pillars,  and  in  build- 
ing. 

Sparry  Lime  Rock  is  made  up  of  fine  grains  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  :  it  resembles  Nova  Scotia  plaster.  From 
this  stratum,  nitrogen  gas,  in  vast  quantities,  is  supposed 
to  issue. 

Primitive  Argillite  is  a  homogeneous  rock,  of  a  slaty 
structure.  It  is  used  for  roofing  buildings. 

A  long  period  must  have  been  required  to  bring  the 
materials  of  these  primitive  rocks  into  the  compact  and 
hardened  state  in  which  we  now  find  them ;  for  although 
the  Deity  could,  in  an  instant,  have  changed  the  most 
subtle  gasses  into  rocks  and  stones,  we  have  no  reason 
to  believe  that  he  did  not  operate  by  second  causes  as 
much  in  the  formation  of  the  World  as  he  has  since  done. 
Chemical  and  mechanical  agencies  undoubtedly  were 
brought  into  action  to  produce  the  intended  effects:  the 
dry  land  at  length  appeared,  the  waters  being  gathered1 
together  into  oceans,  seas,  lakes  and  rivers. 

After  the  first  crust  was  formed  around  the  earth,  it 
is  supposed  that  some  great  convulsion  in  the  interior, 
either  by  means  of  volcanic  fires,  or  the  sudden  percus- 
sion of  internal  gasses  producing  earthquakes,  burst 
asunder  this  outer  coat,  and  shattered  into  fragments,  or 
broke  into  larger  masses,  the  rocks  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed. 

At  the  breaking  up  of  the  rocky  pavement  of  the 
globe,  and  crumbling  of  primitive  rocks,  of  which  this 
pavement  was  composed,  a  new  formation  was  made  of  the 
fragments  of  the  other  rocks,  united  together  by  a  kind 
of  cement.  This  induces  the  opinion  that  volcanic  fires 
were  agents  in  producing  the  great  commotion  which 
tore  up  the  foundations  of  the  earth.  Fire  would  of 
course  melt  or  fuse,  in  a  degree  sufficient  to  form  the 
cement ;  for  instance,  where  granite  was  thrown  by  the 
side  of  limestone,  the  silex  of  the  one  in  contact  with  the 
alkali  of  the  other  would  form  a  substance  like  glass, 
which  you  know  is  produced  by  the  melting  of  sand  and 
alkali  together. 

This  second  class  of  rocks  are  called  transition 
rocks,  because  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  formed 


GEOLOGY.  229 

at  the  changing  or  transition  of  the  world  from  an  unin- 
habited to  a  habitable  state. 

The  rocks  belonging  to  this  class  are, 

Transition  Argillite,  Graywacke,  and 

Calciferous  Sand  Rock,          Old  Red  Sand  Stone. 
Metalliferous  Lime  Rock, 

Transition  Argillite  is  a  soft,  homogeneous  rock, 
mostly  of  a  bluish  or  dark  color.  It  composes  the  rocks 
of  the  Cohoes  Falls.*  There  seems  to  be  very  little  dif- 
ference between  this  and  the  Primitive  Argillite,  and  it 
is  thought  proper,  by  some  geologists,  to  include  them 
all  in  one  class. 

Calciferous  Sand  Rock  is  composed  of  grains  of  quartz 
and  carbonate  of  lime. 

Metalliferous  Lime  Rock  is  of  a  gray  or  slate  color. 
It  derives  its  name  from  being  often  found  to  contain 
silver  and  other  metals. 

Graywacke  is  an  aggregate  of  sand  cemented  by  clay ; 
it  often  contains  scales  of  talc  and  mica.  The  color  is 
usually  gray.  This  rock  constitutes  most  of  the  Cat- 
skill  and  Alleghany  Mountains. 

Old  Red  Sand  Stone  is  an  aggregate  of  angular 
grains  of  quartzose  sand,  held  together  by  a  ferrugin- 
eous  argillaceous  cement.  It  forms  a  loose,  red  soil :  it 
is  valuable  for  building  :  when  wrought,  it  is  called  Free 
Stone.  It  forms  the  bank  of  Connecticut  River. 

In  the  transition  formation,  we  find  the  fossil  remains 
of  plants  and  animals;  the  plants  are  all  of  that  kind, 
called  in  Botany  stiped,  that  is,  having  no  real  stem,  but 
a  frond  like  the  ferns  and  palms.  These  plants  differ  in 
several  particulars  from  those  which  have  the  true  stem 
or  caulis,  and  are  therefore  called  cauline  plants.  The 
seeds  of  stiped  plants  never  have  two  cotyledons ;  the 
stalks  grow  from  the  centre  outwardly,  and  are  therefore 
called  endogenous^  while  the  stems  of  cauline  plants 
grow  on  the  outside,  and  are  called  exogenous. 

The  fossil  animals  found  in  transition  rocks   are  of 

*  These  falls  are  on  the  Mohawk,  a  little  above  its  mouth. 

t  The  two  words,  endogenous  and  exogenous,  are  derived  from 
the  Greek  :  the  first  signifies  to  grow  internally,  the  other  to  grow 
externally. 

20 


230  GEOLOGY. 

races  now  extinct.  At  this  second  period  of  the  world,  a 
strange  and  appalling  state  of  things  existed  ;  lizard- 
shape  animals,  extending  to  monstrous  dimensions;  the 
mastodum  and  megatherium  of  enormous  bulk,  and  vari- 
ous other  huge  and  singular  animals  had  possession  of 
the  earth,  and  rolled  their  vast  magnitudes  over  ferns  and 
palms  of  a  size  corresponding  to  their  own. 

In  the  meantime  a  new  set  of  rocks  were  gradually 
formed  from  the  ruins  of  both  primitive  and  transition; 
these  were  called  secondary  rocks :  other  plants  and  ani- 
mals were  at  this  period  created. 

These  rocks  are, 

Mill-stone  Grit,  Calciferous  Slate, 

Saliferous  Rock,  Geodiferous  Lime  Rock, 

Gray  Band,  Cornitiferous  Lime  Rock,  and 

Ferriferous  Slate,  Pyritiferous  Rock. 
Ferriferous  Sand  Rock, 

Mill-stone  Grit  is  a  coarse,  harsh  aggregate  of  sand 
and  pebbles  ;  the  color  is  gray  or  reddish.  It  is  used  for 
mill-stones. 

Saliferous  Rock  constitutes  the  floor  of  all  the  salt 
springs  in  the  western  country.  It  is  used  as  a  building 
stone. 

Gray  Band  is  a  hard  fine-grained  gray  rock,  so  com- 
pact that  it  may  be  considered  homogeneous. 

Ferriferous  Slate  is  a  hard  silicious  rock,  lying  over 
iron  ore.  It  often  appears  in  the  bed  of  the  Western 
Canal. 

Calciferous  Slate.  This  rock  often  contains  carbonate 
of  lime;  it  embraces  beds  of  plaster  and  shell  limestone; 
it  forms,  by  disintegration,  the  best  of  soils. 

Geodiferous  Lime  Rock.  This  name  is  given  on  ac- 
count of  small  cavities  which  it  contains,  called  geodcs. 
This  rock  is  found  at  Lockport  and  Niagara  Falls. 

Cornitiferous  Lime  Rock  is  made  up  of  layers  of  shell- 
limestone,  containing  beds  of  horn-stone:  from  this  cir- 
cumstance, it  receives  its  name — the  Latin  word  cornus, 
signifying  a  horn.  This  rock  is  remarkable  for  its  numer- 
ous caverns. 

Pyritiferous  Rock  is  a  calcareous  gray  rock,  abound- 
ing in  iron  pyrites. 

At  length,  the  earth  being  made  habitable,  man  is 
formed ;  after  a  series  of  ages,  the  fountains  of  the  deep 


GEOLOGY.  231 

are  broken  up;  the  monsters  which  stalked  over  the 
earth,  or  crawled  through  its  fens  and  marshes,  are  sud- 
denly overwhelmed  by  the  deluge  which  was  sent  to  de- 
stroy the  human  monsters  who  did  *  evil  in  the  sight  of 
God.'  Antediluvian  remains  of  animals  are  found  in 
Siberia,  India,  England,  France,  and  Germany,  and  in 
various  parts  of  America. 

In  considering  the  ruins  of  the  deluge,  we  must  not 
fall  into  the  error  which  has  been  too  common,  of  consid- 
ering all  fossil  shells,  and  other  organic  remains  found 
imbedded  in  rocks,  as  marks  of  that  event.  It  appears 
probable,  from  observations  made  upon  the  rock  strata, 
that  previous  to  this,  the  earth  had  undergone  many 
changes  ; — fire  and  water  had  been  active  in  decomposing 
and  crystallizing  the  mineral  substances  on  the  globe, 
and  many  animals  and  plants  had  become  petrified  and 
fixed  in  their  rocky  beds. 

The  process  of  petrification  consists  in  the  gradual  de- 
cay of  the  original  substance  of  an  organized  being,  while 
the  place  of  the  particles  which  pass  off  in  a  gaseous  or 
other  form,  is  supplied  by  stony  particles,  until  the  whole 
mass  is  thus  changed.  Some  waters  containing  lime, 
possess  the  power  of  petrifaction  in  a  high  degree.  The 
lime  becoming  concreted,  takes  the  place  of  the  original 
substance.  Shells  are  often  found  petrified  ;  they  some- 
times occur  in  large  masses  forming  rocks,  termed  shell 
limestone. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  these  lectures,  to  enter 
deeply  into  geological  investigations.  So  many  impor- 
tant facts  and  interesting  observations  crowd  upon  us, 
when  glancing  at  this  subject,  that  the  longer  we  dwell 
upon  it,  the  more  it  seems  necessary  to  say.  I  must, 
however  interesting  the  theme,  hasten  to  bring  to  a  close 
our  remarks  on  Geology,  and  with  this,  our  observations 
upon  Natural  Science  in  general. 

We  have  spoken  of  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary 
rocks  ;  of  the  great  primitive  ocean  which,  as  is  supposed, 
once  covered  the  face  of  the  whole  earth  while  it  was  yet 
*  without  form  and  void.' — We  have  remarked  upon  the 
prevalent  opinion  of  the  gradual  formation  of  the  different 
classes  of  rocks,  the  changes  which  the  earth  must  have 
undergone,  previous  to  the  existence  of  animals  or  vege- 


232  GEOLOGY. 

tables ;  and  that  great  and  sudden  catastrophe  which, 
with  the  exception  of  Noah  and  those  who  were  with  him, 
buried  in  one  vast,  watery  grave,  the  whole  race  of  or- 
ganized beings,  including  man,  and  beast,  and  the  vege- 
table tribes. 

Everywhere  upon  and  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
are  to  be  found  traces  of  the  deluge. — Masses  of  clay,  sand 
and  shells,  mingled  with  bones  and  skeletons  of  huge  ani- 
mals as  well  as  those  of  a  less  size,  can  be  accounted  for  on 
no  other  supposition,  than  that  they  were  thus  indiscrimi- 
nately thrown  together  by  the  rushing  of  mighty  waters. 
Caverns  are  discovered  whose  floors  are  covered  with  the 
bones  of  hyenas,  wolves,  bears,  and  other  beasts  of  prey, 
who  seem  to  have  rushed  together  into  these  retreats,  to 
avoid  the  impending  destruction.  From  the  appearances 
of  the  gnawed  fragments  of  bones,  it  would  seem  that 
they  fell  upon,  and  devoured  each  other.  These  remains 
are  covered  by  a  light  mud,  evidently  washed  over  them, 
as  the  waters  of  the  flood  were  subsiding. 

The  period  before  the  flood  is  termed  antediluvial 
(from  ante  before,  diluvium  flood) :  thus,  those  animals 
whose  remains  are  found  only  in  the  oldest  rocks,  are 
called  antediluvian  relics.  The  ruins  of  the  flood,  the 
land  which  was  then  formed,  and  all  appearances  which 
seem  the  result  of  that  event,  are  called  diluviaL  The 
various  geological  changes  upon  and  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  which  have  taken  place  since  the 
flood,  are  called  post-diluvial.  The  deposites  of  soil 
or  other  changes  effected  by  water,  are  called  by  the 
more  general  term  alluvial. 

Besides  the  three  regular  classes  of  rocks,  and  the  va- 
rious kinds  of  alluvions,  there  is  another  formation  con- 
sisting of  what  are  called  Basaltic  or  Superincumbent 
rocks.  These  lie  over  the  other  rocks  in  strata  not  con- 
formable to  them.  They  are  supposed  by  most  geologists 
to  be  of  volcanic  origin:  they  are  Amygdaloid,  which  is 
an  aggregate  of  hornblende  particles  of  a  dark  gray  or 
brown  color,  and  Greenstone  trap,  which  is  an  aggregate 
of  hornblende  and  felspar.  The  Giant's  Causeway  and 
Fingal's  Cave  in  Ireland,  and  the  Palisadoes  on  the 
Hudson  river  are  composed  of  Basaltic  or  trap  rocks. 
There  are  also  other  remains  of  Volcanoes,  as  lava  of 


GEOLOGY.  233 

various  kinds,  either  dark  colored  and  almost  homogene- 
ous, or  of  cemented  grains,  or  whitish  lava,  consisting 
chiefly  of  melted  felspar,  and  called  Trachyte. 

The  various  layers  of  clay,  sand,  and  marl,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  before  the  deluge,  have  re- 
ceived the  name  of  the  Tertiary  formation.  The  word 
Tertiary,  signifying  three,  is  given  in  consequence  of  this 
lying  over  the  secondary  formation. 

This  formation  which  is  very  extensive  in  France  and 
England,  has,  in  those  countries,  received  much  attention. 
'  The  most  remarkable  discovery,'  says  Bakewell,  '  that 
has  been  made  respecting  the  tertiary  deposites,  is,  that 
many  of  them  contain  the  remains  of  mammiferous* 
quadrupeds,  as  perfect  in  their  organization  as  any  of  the 
existing  species  of  land  quadrupeds,  but  most  of  them 
belonging  to  genera  or  species  that  are  extinct.  The 
tertiary  strata  are  further  remarkable  for  presenting  the 
frequent  alternation  of  beds  containing  the  remains  of 
marine  animals,  with  other  beds  that  contain  the  bones 
of  land  animals  or  fresh  water  shells.  It  appears  that 
tertiary  strata  were  chiefly  formed  in  detached  inland 
seas,  or  lakes.' 

When  commencing  the  science  of  geology,  a  pupil 
may  very  naturally  imagine  that  to  be  but  a  trifling 
study,  which  directs  the  attention  to  a  mere  stone,  such 
as  may  at  any  time  be  seen  in  the  street ;  he  may  be  ready 
to  say,  '  It  seems  a  very  little  thing,  to  know  that  this,  a 
piece  of  rock,  is  granite,  and  that  granite  is  composed  of 
mica,  quartz,  and  felspar.'  If  any  of  you  have  been  led 
to  entertain  thoughts  of  a  similar  kind,  I  trust  you  are 
now  convinced  that  it  is  well  to  suspend  opinions,  till 
you  have  advanced  beyond  the  mere  elements  of  a  study. 
You  find  that  geology  presents  a  noble  field  for  research ; 
that  it  carries  the  mind  from  the  consideration  of  rocks 
and  mountains,  to  the  period  of  their  creation,  and  to 
Him  who  created  them :  you  perceive  them  to  be  silent 
and  venerable  historians,  which,  in  a  language  that  ad- 
mits of  no  dispute,  indicate  changes  that  the  globe  has 
undergone,  many  of  which,  but  for  these  witnesses  and 

*  Such  four-footed  animals  as  nourish  their  young  with  milk. 
20* 


234  GEOLOGY. 

partakers,  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  would  have  been 
forever  ignorant. 

According  to  the  discoveries  of  geologists,  it  appears — 
Jirst,  that  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  was  once 
covered  by  a  void  and  formless  deep.  Chemistry  proves 
that  darkness  and  light,  gasses,  liquids,  and  solids,  min- 
gled in  one  universal  chaos,  might,  according  to  the 
laws  of  nature,  have  disengaged  themselves,  and  formed 
a  uew  arrangement. 

Second,  it  appears  from  geology,  that  the  waters  were 
gathered  into  their  respective  places,  and  that  solids 
were  separated  from  liquids ;  and  gasses  released  from 
their  unnatural  union,  rose  by  their  specific  levity,  into 
higher  regions. 

Third,  we  learn  from  geology,  that  after  the  earth 
had  become  fitted  for  the  support  of  vegetation,  plants 
were  created,  their  remains  being  found  in  older  rocks 
than  those  of  animals. 

Fourthly,  we  learn  from  geology,  that  after  plants  were 
created,  the  '  waters  brought  forth  abundantly,'  the  re- 
mains of  marine  and  fresh  water  animals  being  found  in 
older  rocks  than  those  of  land  animals. 

Fifthly,  we  find  by  geology,  that  at  this  period  land 
animals  were  created,  and  that  they  '  multiplied  greatly 
upon  the  earth.' 

Sixthly,  we  learn  from  geology,  that  after  a  long  period 
of  time  had  elapsed  from  the  creation  of  plants  arid  ani- 
mals, the  whole  earth  was  again  covered  with  water, 
which  swallowed  up  vast  multitudes  of  animals  arid  vege- 
tables, whose  remains  are  daily  becoming  more  and  more 
revealed  to  human  observation.  We  know  too  that  many 
species  and  even  genera  of  animals  which  existed  pre- 
vious to  that  catastrophe,  are  now  extinct.  We  learn  by 
geology,  from  the  fact  of  beds  of  shells  being  found  upon 
the  highest  ground  at  great  distances  from  the  sea,  that 
the  *  waters  covered  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains  ;7 
and,  from  various  other  circumstances,  it  appears  that  they 
gradually  subsided.  Now,  compare  these  facts  as  revealed 
by  geology,  with  the  events  recorded  in  scripture,  between 
the  1st  and  10th  chapters  of  Genesis,  and  you  will  find 
an  entire  corroboration  of  what  is  there  recorded. 


GEOLOGY.  235 

Among  all  the  diluvial  and  antediluvial  relics,  no  hu- 
man bones  have  yet  been  discovered.  This,  however,  is 
a  fact  which  ought  not  to  excite  surprise,  when  we  con- 
sider how  little  is  known  of  the  fossil  and  other  ancient 
remains  of  Asia,  which  was  the  birth-place  of  the  human 
race.  At  the  period  of  the  deluge,  mankind  had  not 
probably  extended  far  over  the  earth :  at  the  approach  of 
this  event,  they  would  naturally  collect  in  groups  for  mu- 
tual assistance  and  protection,  and  in  this  condition  prob- 
ably met  their  fate.  Seas  may  now  cover  their  remains, 
or  it  may  rest  for  future  geologists  to  discover  and  bring 
forth  the  bones  of  those  wretched  arid  miserable  beings 
who  signally  met  with  retribution,  even  in  this  life. 

From  what  has  been  observed,  you  will  readily  see 
the  vast  importance  of  the  discoveries  of  geologists  and 
anatomists  respecting  organic  remains  ;  especially  when 
taken  in  connexion  with  established  facts  relative  to  the 
comparative  ages  of  the  different  strata  or  layers  of  rocks. 
If  a  certain  tribe  of  plants  or  animals  are  found  imbedded 
in  a  certain  rock  formation,  while  the  rocks  of  more  re- 
cent origin  are  never  found  to  contain  such  remains,  we 
must  believe  they  were  of  more  ancient  date  than  the 
species  found  in  newer  rocks. 

'If  it  had  been  predicted  a  century  ago,  that  a  volume 
would  be  discovered,  containing  the  natural  history  of 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  globe,  which  flourished 
and  perished  before  the  creation  of  man,  with  the  dis- 
tinct impressions  of  the  forms  of  animals  no  longer  exist- 
ing on  earth, — what  curiosity  would  have  been  excited 
to  see  this  wonderful  volume ;  how  anxiously  would  Phi- 
losophers have  waited  for  the  discovery  !  But  this  volume 
is  now  discovered  ;  it  is  the  volume  of  nature,  rich  with 
the  spoils  of  primeval  ages,  unfolded  to  the  view  of  the 
attentive  observer  in  the  strata  that  compose  the  crust  of 
the  globe.'  * 

This  interesting  branch  of  Natural  History  has  hither- 
to been  little  introduced  into  female  seminaries;  the  rea- 
son of  this  is,  undoubtedly,  the  want  of  popular,  elemen- 
tary treatises  on  the  subject;  as  this  want  shall  be  sup- 
plied, it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  study  which  so  powerfully 

*  Bakewell. 


236 


MATHEMATICS. 


confirms  the  truth  of  revelation,  and  which  so  evidently 
tends  to  elevate  and  enlarge  the  rnind,  will  no  longer  be 
considered  unnecessary,  or  unimportant.*  All  who  study 
nature,  must,  with  the  poet  Montgomery,  feel  that 

*  There  is  a  voiceless  eloquence  on  earth 
Telling  of  Him  who  gave  her  wonders  birth  ;  ' — 

And  all  such  will  be  ready  to  exclaim  with  him, — 

'  And  long  may  I  remain  the  adoring  child 

Of  Nature's  majesty,  sublime  or  wild  ; 

Hill,  flood  and  forest,  mountain,  rock  and  sea, 

All  take  these  terrors  and  their  charms  from  Thee. 

From  Thee,  whose  hidden  but  supreme  control, 

Moves  through  the  world,  a  Universal  Soul.' 


LECTURE  XIX. 

Mathematics — Arithmetic — Algebra — Geometry. 

IN  commencing  my  remarks  on  the  study  of  Mathe- 
matics as  a  branch  of  female  education,  I  shall  intro- 
duce a  passage  from  Hannah  More's  Strictures,  which 
will  show  you  the  state  of  our  sex  as  to  intellectual 
improvement  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
with  the  opinions  of  one  deserving  of  deference  and 
respect,  as  to  the  proper  means  by  which  the  existing 
evils  might  be  remedied.  '  Women,3  says  Mrs.  More, 
'  are  little  accustomed  to  close  reasoning  on  any  subject; 
still  less  do  they  inure  their  minds  to  consider  par- 
ticular parts  of  a  subject :  they  are  not  habituated 
to  turn  a  truth  round,  and  view  it  in  all  its  varied 
aspects  and  positions :  and  this  is  one  cause  of  the  too 
great  confidence  they  are  disposed  to  place  in  their  own 

*  Since  this  lecture  was  delivered,  the  author  has  been  engaged 
in  making  some  additions  to  a  small  work  written  by  the  author  of 
the  Child's  Botany,  and  entitled  the  Child's  Geology.  This  will 
soon  be  given  to  the  public.  Should  the  author  of  these  lec- 
tures be  enabled  to  fulfil  her  present  intentions,  a  work  on  Geolo- 
gy, adapted  to  female  seminaries,  for  which  she  has  six  years  been 
collecting  materials,  will  be  soon  prepared  for  publication. 


MATHEMATICS.  237 

opinions.  Though  their  imagination  is  already  too  live- 
ly, and  their  judgment  naturally  incorrect;  in  educating 
them,  we  go  on  to  stimulate  the  imagination,  while  we 
neglect  the  regulation  of  the  judgrnent.  They  already 
want  ballast,  arid  we  make  their  education  consist  in 
continually  crowding  more  sail  than  they  can  carry. 
Their  intellectual  powers  being  so  little  strengthened  by 
exercise,  makes  every  little  business  appear  a  hardship 
to  them :  whereas  serious  study  would  be  useful,  were  it 
only  that  it  leads  the  mind  to  the  habit  of  conquering 
difficulties/  t 

In  another  part  of  her  work,  Mrs.  More  says,  '  The 
chief  end  to  be  proposed  in  cultivating  the  understand- 
ing of  women  is  to  qualify  them  for  the  practical  pur- 
poses of  life.  The  great  use  of  study  with  them  is  to 
regulate  their  minds  and  render  them  capable  of  fulfil- 
ling the  duties  of  life.  To  woman  therefore  1  would  recom- 
mend a  predominance  of  sober  studies,  those  which  will 
teach  her  to  elicit  truth  ;  will  give  precision  to  her  ideas ; 
will  make  an  exact  mind,  which  instead  of  stimulating 
her  sensibility,  will  chasten  it;  which  will  give  her 
definite  notions;  will  bring  her  imagination  under 
dominion  ;  will  lead  her  to  think,  to  compare,  to  metho- 
dize. Economy  is  the  exercise  of  a  sound  judgment, 
exerted  in  the  comprehensive  outline  of  ordor  and 
arrangement.  She  who  has  the  best  regulated  mind 
will,  all  other  things  being  equal,  have  the  best  regulat- 
ed family.' 

It  had  not  probably  entered  into  the  mind  of  the  excel- 
lent woman  whose  judicious  observations  have  just  been 
quoted,  that  her  sex,  in  thirty  years  from  the  time 
in  which  she  advanced  these  ideas,  would  be  admitted 
by  general  consent  to  share  in  those  pursuits,  which 
have  the  most  undoubted  tendency  to  produce  the  effects 
which  she  desired — a  tendency  to  sober  the  imagination, 
develope  the  reasoning  powers,  and  strengthen  the  under- 
standing, so  apt  in  the  female  character  to  be  biassed  by 
prejudice  or  borne  on  the  gossamer  wing  of  a  lively  fan- 
cy into  the  regions  of  error  and  folly.  Mrs.  More  recom- 
mended the  reading  of  Watts  on  the  Mind,  Butler's 
Analogy,  and  other  writings  of  a  grave  and  metaphysical 


238  MATHEMATICS. 

character ;  but  she  did  not,  (if  indeed  she  was  aware  of 
their  superior  importance  as  aids  to  mental  discipline) 
dare  to  speak  of  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics. 

Watts  observes  that  '  Mathematics  have  a  strange  influ- 
ence toward  fixing  the  attention  of  the  mind,  and  giving  a 
steadiness  to  a  wandering  disposition,  because  they  deal 
much  in  lines,  figures  and  numbers,  which  affect  and 
please  the  sense  and  imagination.'  The  same  writer,  in 
speaking  of  the  tendency  of  the  mind  to  *  narrow  and  low 
conceptions,'  remarks  that  *  this  defect  may  be  remedied 
by  beginning  wiih  the  first  principles  in  geometry,  and 
proceeding  to  the  doctrine  of  quantities,  which  are 
infinite  and  innumerable.  A  little  acquaintance  with 
true  philosophy  and  mathematical  learning,  would  soon 
teach  the  mind  that  there  are  no  limits  either  to  the  ex- 
tension of  space,  or  the  division  of  body,  and  would  lead 
it  to  believe  that  there  are  bodies  amazingly  great  or 
small  beyond  their  present  imagination.'  The  same 
writer  further  observes,  '  It  is  owing  to  the  narrowness  of 
our  minds,  that  we  are  exposed  to  the  same  peril  in  the 
matters  of  human  prudence  and  duty.  In  many  things 
which  we  do,  we  ought  not  only  to  consider  the  mere 
naked  action  itself,  but  the  persons  who  act,  the  persons 
towards  whom,  the  time  when,  the  place  where,  the 
manner  how,  the  end  to  which  the  action  is  done, 
together  with  the  effects  that  must,  or  that  may  follow, 
and  all  other  surrounding  circumstances ;  these  things 
must  necessarily  be  taken  into  view,  in  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  action,  which  is  indifferent  in  itself, 
be  either  lawful  or  unlawful,  good  or  evil,  wise  or  foolish, 
decent  or  indecent,  proper  or  improper.' 

Females  have  been  said,  and  not  without  reason,  to 
be  fluctuating  in  purpose,  desultory  in  action,  aijd  un- 
settled in  principle.  Possessing  vast  power  over  the 
destinies  of  the  world,  by  their  influence  as  wives  and 
mothers,  they  have  often  been  the  cause  of  contention 
and  misery  among  nations,  and  of  agitation  and  disquiet 
in  the  more  limited  domestic  sphere.  Of  how  much 
importance  to  the  well-being  of  mankind  is  it,  that 
this  fickle,  restless,  yet  powerful  being  should  become 
consistent  and  reflecting,  and  learn  to  exercise  her 


MATHEMATICS.  239 

influence  for  the  good  of  society.  And  how  shall  this 
be  done?  The  question  is  answered  by  Watts,  Locke, 
Stewart,  and  all  other  judicious  writers  on  the  power  of 
education  upon  human  character  ;  for  all  have  united  in 
giving  their  testimony  to  mathematical  studies,  as  one 
of  the  most  important  aids  to  mental  discipline. 

But  it  may  be  said,  that  these  writers  did  not  intend  to 
apply  their  remarks  to  female  education  ;  that  it  was 
for  the  other  sex  for  whom  they  wrote.  Strange  indeed, 
if  the  nearer  the  mind  of  man  resembles  in  its  organi- 
zation that  of  woman,  the  more  he  should  be  required  to 
follow  investigations  calculated  to  fix  the  attention  and 
strengthen  reason,  while  for  woman  herself,  this  should 
be  considered  unnecessary  and  improper. 

Women  are  often  reproached  for  their  limited  views, 
their  low  and  narrow  conceptions ;  true  it  is,  that  their 
sphere  of  action  tends  to  such  results.  The  minute 
objects  towards  which .  their  attention  is  necessarily 
directed,  the  routine  of  their  domestic  duties  and  occu- 
pations have  a  tendency  to  contract  their  minds. — How 
shall  this  be  remedied  1  Let  the  direction  of  Watts  on 
this  subject  be  our  answer.  Although  in  his  day  he 
could  not  have  anticipated  this  application  of  his  re- 
marks, yet  had  the  appeal  even  then  been  made  to  his 
judgment  in  behalf  of  women,  I  am  persuaded  the  jus- 
tice of  his  character  and  the  benevolence  of  his  heart 
would  have  secured  a  verdict  in  their  favor. 

Again,  with  respect  to  'our  conduct  in  matters  of  pru- 
dence and  duty/  as  Watts  expresses  it;  'it  is  owing  to 
the  narrowness  of  our  minds,  that  we  are  exposed  to  peril 
here.'  What  human  being  more  needs  a  sure  guide  in 
matters  of  prudence  and  duty  than  woman  ?  Caressed 
and  flattered,  and  yet  watched  with  jealousy  and  suspi- 
cion— thrown  off  her  guard  by  the  most  tender  indulgence, 
while  the  slightest  shadow  of  imprudence  renders  her  lia- 
ble to  misconstruction  and  reproach, — does  she  not  need 
an  unerring  standard  of  rectitude  in  her  own  bosom,  a 
clear  arid  acute  sense  of  her  own  actual  condition ;  pru- 
dence to  direct  her  in  the  path  of  duty,  and  fortitude  to  sus- 
tain her  under  various  trials  ?  The  mode  of  discipline  by 
which  the  human  mind  maybe  brought  to  a  calm, ration- 


240  MATHEMATICS. 

al  and  dignified  state,  is  pointed  out  in  the  passage  of 
Watts  to  which  we  have  referred.  An  enlarged  and  ex- 
tended view  of  our  various  duties  and  relations  towards 
ourselves,  our  friends,  society,  and  especially  towards  our 
Maker,  accompanied  with  virtuous  principles  and  disci- 
plined minds,  cannot  fail  to  secure  respectability  in  this 
world,  and  happiness  in  a  future  state. 

We  are  far  from  considering  mathematics  as  the  only 
instrument  of  that  mental  discipline  which  we  feel  to  be 
so  necessary  for  our  sex  ;  every  branch  of  education, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  fix  the  attention,  to  impress 
truth  upon  the  mind,  and  to  produce  the  habit  cf  reasoning 
closely  and  consecutively,  is  of  importance  in  this  view. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  the  studies  of  grammar,  lan- 
guages, geography  and  history,  as  auxiliaries  in  this 
great  work.  The  studies  of  natural  science,  mental 
and  moral  philosophy,  are  all  of  great  utility  in  the  form- 
ation of  character:  but  the  study  of  mathematics  has,  by 
philosophers,  been  considered  the  most  direct  way  of 
controlling  the  imagination,  perfecting  reason  and  judg- 
ment, and  inducing  a  habit  of  method  and  love  of  order. 

The  term  mathematics  is  derived  from  the  Greek  verb 
matkeo,  to  learn.  This  science  treats  of  quantity  or 
whatever  can  be  measured,  as  in  geometry,  or  numbered, 
as  in  arithmetic  and  algebra.  Mathematics  is  divided 
into  pure  and  mixed;  pure  mathematics  is  the  abstract 
consideration  of  quantity,  without  any  reference  to  mat- 
ter; mixed  mathematics  treats  of  magnitude  as  subsist- 
ing in  material  bodies,  which  are  subject  to  certain  laws, 
a  knowledge  of  which  constitutes  natural  philosophy. 
Mathematics  here  becomes  united  to  natural  philosophy, 
and  hence  arises  tho  term,  mixed  mathematics.  The 
reasoning  in  mathematics  is  of  that  kind  called  demon- 
strative, or  that  which  admits  of  positive  proof.  Thus  the 
truths  developed  in  the  reasoning  of  the  first  proposition 
of  Euclid  admit  of  no  more  dispute  than  the  axiom  that 
things  equal  to  the  same,  are  equal  to  one  another ;  the 
latter  is  self-evident,  or  apparent  without  any  reasoning; 
but  the  truth  of  the  former  is  not  evident  without  the  in- 
termediate steps  used  in  the  reasoning. 

Moral  reasoning  is  of  a  different  kind,  and  cannot  be 


MATHEMATICS.  241 

rendered  thus  positive.     Dr.  Paley  asserts  that  'virtue 
is  the   doing  good,  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  God,  and 
for  the  sake  of  everlasting  happiness'     Now  if  he  could 
have  proved  this  by  a  train  of  reasoning  founded  upon  a 
self-evident  proposition,  no   one  would  distrust   the    as- 
sertion ;  yet  many  do  dispute  it,  which  shows  that  it  is 
not   proved    to  complete  demonstration,  for  the  human 
mind  cannot  dispute  such  evidence.     Some  moral  truths 
do    however   seem  to    admit  a   proof  equal   to  demon- 
stration.    Thus  the  existence  of  God  is  demonstrated, 
from  the  existence  of  matter,  which  could  not  have  crea- 
ted itself.     Taking  then  for  an  axiom  or  first  truth,  what 
seems  self-evident,  we  would  say  that  matter  must  have 
been  made — it  cannot  have  made  itself,  therefore  since  it 
does  exist,  it  must  have  had  a  maker  ;  this  maker  we  call 
God.  Yet  an  atheist  might  object  to  what  we  called  a  self- 
evident  truth — he  might  say,  we  are  not  certain  that  mat- 
ter has  not  existed  from  eternity.  He  may  of  course  object 
to  our  reasoning,  if  he  does  not  consent  to  our  premises 
or  the  foundation  of  our  arguments.     Yet  demonstrative 
reasoning  is  not  to  render  us  unbelieving  on  moral  sub- 
jects ;  but  the  rather,  tends  by  accustoming  the  mind  to 
deliberate  investigation  and  careful  comparison  of  proofs, 
to  detect  the  true  from  the  false,  even  in  moral  reasoning. 
Mathematics  is  peculiarly  a  science  of  comparisons ; 
these  comparisons  are  always  exact  and  may  be  made 
manifest  to  the  senses.     When  it  is  said  there  are  fifty 
yards  of  ribbon  in  a  piece,  there  is  an  exact  and  sensible 
comparison  between  the  ribbon  in  the  piece,   and   the 
length  of  the  yard  measure,  fifty  times  repeated. 

A  French  writer*  says,  c  is  it  not  certain  that  a  young 
person  accustomed  to  the  justness  and  accuracy  of  math- 
ematical demonstrations,  habituated  to  exercise  his  intel- 
lect in  discovering  the  connexion  of  ideas  in  a  train  of  rea- 
soning in  order  to  prove  a  truth,  is  it  not  certain  that  such 
an  one  will  carry  into  the  world  a  penetrating  and  observ- 
ing mind  ;  that  he  will  pursue  other  studies  with  greater 
facility,  when  his  judgment  and  all  his  intellectual  facul- 

*  Delpierre  du  Tremblay ,  author  of  Lettres  sur  les  Etude,  et  sur 
leur  Rapport  Jlvec  L' Entendement  Humain. 

21 


242  ARITHMETIC    AND    ALGEBRA. 

ties  have  been  exercised  and  strengthened  by  mathematical 
investigations.  Many  persons  who  have  not  sufficiently 
reflected  upon  the  manner  in  which  our  faculties  can  be 
exercised  to  the  greatest  advantage,  and  upon  the  assist- 
ance which  the  sciences  mutually  render  to  each  other, 
say  that  the  mind  can  pursue  any  science  to  which  it 
gives  attention,  that  it  is  but  lost  time  to  occupy  it  with 
mathematics  instead  of  the  profession  which  is  to  be  the 
business  of  life.  But  has  the  mind  always  the  capacity 
for  the  study  of  any  kind  of  science  ?  Is  it  not  necessa- 
ry to  form  the  judgment  by  preliminary  studies?  And 
are  not  the  mathematics  the  best  means  of  accomplish- 
ing this,  and  the  method  of  reasoning  and  investigation 
acquired  in  this  science  a  most  important  aid  in  all 
others  ? '  Suppose  of  two  young  persons  of  equal  talents, 
and  who  have  devoted  equal  time  to  study,  the  one  is  a 
geometrician,  and  the  other  has  given  her  time  more  to 
other  branches  of  knowledge — suppose  these  two  com- 
mencing together  some  new  science,  botany,  chemistry,  or 
mental  philosophy,  we  shall  soon  perceive  the  great 
advantage  which  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  mathe- 
matical reasoning  gives  the  one,  over  the  other,  in  the 
mode  of  arranging  facts,  of  developing  truth,  and  per- 
forming such  mental  analyses  as  are  necessary  to  disen- 
tangle, and  bring  to  light  the  most  complicated  subjects. 
For  the  greatest  discoveries,  which  have  enlightened  the 
world  we  are  indebted  chiefly  to  those  powerful  minds 
which  have  first  strengthened  and  invigorated  them- 
selves at  the  fountains  of  mathematical  knowledge: 
Descartes,  Mallebranche,  Gallileo,  Kepler,  Bacon,  Locke, 
Newton,  and  Fontenelle.  Plato  wrote  over  the  entrance 
into  his  school,  '  He  who  has  not  studied  the  Elements 
of  Geometry  cannot  enter  here.' 

Arithmetic  and  Algebra. 

Arithmetic  is  the  lowest  and  most  simple  branch  of 
mathematics.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
arithmos,  signifying  number.  It  is  the  science  of  num- 
bers. Arithmetical  calculation  signifies  operations  per- 
forme'l  by  various  modes  of  adding,  subtracting,  multi* 


ARITHMETIC  AND  ALGEBRA.  243 

plying  or  dividing.  The  word  calculation,  (ha  French 
called  calcul,)  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word  signifying 
little  stones,  because  the  ancients  used  such,  instead  of 
figures  in  their  arithmetical  computations.  All  our 
numbers  are  expressed  by  different  arrangements  of  the 
cipher  and  the  nine  figures,  called  digits.  These  were 
learned  from  the  Arabians,  who  are  said  to  have 
derived  their  knowledge  from  countries  still  farther 
east.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  used  the  letters  of  their 
alphabet  to  express  numbers.  Thus,  instead  of  the 
Arabic  character  for  I  they  used  the  letter  I ;  for  2  they 
used  II ;  for  3,  II  [;  for  4,"  IV,  &c. 

Of  all  the  sciences,  arithmetic  is  perhaps  the  most 
ancient,  it  having  been  taught  by  the  Egyptians  600 
years  before  Christ.  It  is  said  they  attempted  to  ex- 
plain everything  by  numbers,  and  even  thought  that  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  these  would  conduct  them  to  the 
fountain  of  divinity,  to  God  himself. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  urge  the  importance  of  this  study 
as  a  branch  of 'female  education,  since  this  is  universally 
admitted ;  but  it  cannot  be  unnecessary  to  recommend 
a  more  practical  use  of  it  than  is  generally  made.  I 
should  blush  for  any  pupil  of  this  institution,  who,  after 
having  studied  arithmetic  even  but  a  short  time,  should 
be  found  ignorant  of  the  proper  method  of  keeping  an  ac- 
count, or  of  making  out  a  bill.  The  practical  object  of 
arithmetic  is  to  teach  you  to  do  those  things.  It  should 
also  have  a  moral  influence  on  the  conduct  by  teaching 
you  to  regulate  your  expenses  according  to  your  income. 
Many  a  man  has  been  ruined  because  his  wife  and  daugh- 
ters have  not  practised  arithmetic ;  and  there  are  those,  who 
resorting  to  dishonest  methods  for  procuring  wealth,  have 
dragged  out  in  a  state's  prison  a  miserable  existence,  which 
economy  in  their  family  might  have  rendered  virtuous  and 
happy.  Suppose  that  a  man  in  business  earns  a  thousand 
dollars  a  year  ;  which  is  probably  as  large  an  income,  as, 
upon  an  average,  is  received  by  clergymen,  lawyers,  physi- 
cians and  merchants  in  this  country ; — in  many  cases,  from 
this  income,  house-rent  is  to  be  paid,  fuel  and  provisions 
furnished,  children  to  be  educated,  and  a  family  cloth- 
ed. What,  in  siich  a  situation,  should  be  the  manage- 


244  ARITHMETIC    AND    ALGEBRA. 

ment  of  a  wife  and  daughters?  Perhaps  some  may 
reason  something  in  this  way, — my  husband  or  father  has 
an  income  of  a  thousand  dollars;  now,  I  want  this  shawl 
which  costs  only  thirty  dollars,  or  this  bonnet  which 
costs  only  twenty,  and  this  will  be  but  a  very  little  part 
of  the  yearly  income. — I  am  sure  it  can  be  easily  spared. 
But  if  the  calculation  was  first  made,  how  much  of 
this  sum  must  be  expended  in  necessaries,  it  would  be 
at  once  seen  that  very  little  could  be  afforded  for 
superfluities. 

Arithmetic  teaches  only  the  properties  of  numbers 
which  are  known ;  its  calculations  are  carried  on  by  the 
use  of  figures ;  but  in  Algebra,  letters  are  made  to  rep- 
resent quantities  that  are  unknown.  It  takes  for  grant- 
ed the  unknown  quantity  sought,  and  by  means  of  one 
or  more  given  quantities,  proceeds,  until  the  supposed 
quantity  is  discovered  by  some  other  known  quantity  to 
which  it  is  equal.  The  first  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b, 
ct  &c.  are  commonly  employed  to  stand  for  known 
quantities — the  last,  as  z,  yt  &c.  for  unknown.  By  this 
process,  many  questions  are  solved,  which  could  not  have 
been  done  by  simple  arithmetic.  A  knowledge  of  .alge- 
bra is  necessary  in  geometry,  mechanics,  astronomy,  and 
all  branches  of  science  which  depend  on  mathemnucal 
demonstration.  To  those  who  desire  a  thorough  educa- 
tion, a  knowledge  of  algebra  must  therefore  be  deemed 
of  importance,  since  it  leads  the  way  to  so  many  other 
sciences.  Not  that  some  knowledge  of  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  and  geometry  may  not  bo  ac- 
quired without  the  assistance  of  algebra ;  but  this  know- 
ledge must  necessarily  be  limited  and  imperfect. 

Arithmetic  may  be  considered  as  a  germ,  which  con- 
tains within  it  the  principles  of  algebra.  The  two 
sciences  are  intimately  connected  ;  a  knowledge  of  the 
one  throws  light  upon  the  other.  Arithmetic  being  the 
more  simple,  some  knowledge  of  it  should  be  possessed 
before  commencing  algebra.  Every  step  then  taken  in 
thev  latter  science,  will  throw  light  upon  the  former, 
and  processes  which,  performed  by  arithmetical  rules,  ap- 
peared tedious  and  complicated,  may,  by  algebraic  prin- 
ciples, be  rendered  clear  and  simple.  Besides  the  prac- 


GEOMETRY.  245 

tical  uses  of  this  science,  the  accurate  analysis  which  it 
teaches,  is  an  important  means  of  intellectual  discipline. 
Some  would  refer  the  origin  of  algebra  to  Plato, 
because  he  first  taught  the  principles  of  analysis,  which  are 
so  necessary  to  the  existence  of  this  science  ;  but  it  is 
generally  attributed  to  the  Arabians,  from  whose  lan- 
guage the  word  algebra  is  taken.  In  its  original  mean- 
ing, it  signifies  a  reduction  of  fractions.  The  first 
treatise  on  algebra  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  Dio- 
phantes,  a  philosopher  of  Alexandria,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Antoninus,  toward  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  In  the  fifth  century,  Hypasia,  the  daughter  of 
Theon,  a  celebrated  geometrician,  published  a  comment 
on  the  treatise  of  Diophantes.  This  comment  a  learned 
French  mathematician  notices  as  *  exhibiting  a  depth  of 
thought,  of  which  few  men  are  capable/  Hypasia  may  be 
considered  the  first,  who  brought  the  science  of  algebra 
into  a  regular  system,  This  woman,  whom  the  same 
writer  calls  the  *  honor  of  her  sex,'  was  professor  in  the 
famous  school  at  Alexandria,  and  filled  with  distinguish- 
ed credit,  a  place  which  had  been  rendered  illustrious 
by  many  great  and  learned  men.  The  people,  stirred  up 
by  some  persons,  envious  of  Hypasia' s  fame,  accused  her 
of  political  intrigues,  and  cruelly  murdered  her  in  the 
professor's  chair.  As  the  acquirements  of  this  woman 
are  recorded  in  history,  as  a  wonderful  phenomenon,  we 
infer  the  general  prevalence  of  ignorance  among  the 
females  of  that  period. 

Geometry. 

Geometry,  an  important  branch  of  mathematical 
science,  takes  its  name  from  two  Greek  words,  ge,  land 
or  earth,  and  metron,  measure,  signifying  to  measure  land. 
This  science  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Egypt 
According  to  two  very  ancient  historians,  Herodotus  and 
Strabo,  the  inundations  of  the  Nile  carrying  away  their 
land-marks,  the  Egyptians  invented  the  art  of  measuring 
and  dividing  their  lands,  in  order  that  each  might  dis- 
tinguish his  own  territory,  by  its  particular  figure, 
and  the  surface  which  it  was  known  to  contain. 
21* 


246  GEOMETRY. 

Thus  imperfect  was  geometry  in  its  origin,  commenc- 
ing by  a.  series  of  observations  which  were  confined 
to  actual  substances.  By  degrees  mankind  began  to 
generalize  their  observations  of  particular  facts,  and 
geometry  became  a  noble  and  exact  science,  constituting 
a  firm  basis  on  which  many  other  sciences  are  founded. 

Geometry  is  the  science  of  extension,  and  not  only 
signifies  the  measuring  of  land,  but  of  the  heavens 
also ;  for  by  its  aid,  astronomers  have  been  able  to  ascer- 
tain the  dimensions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  space 
through  which  they  travel,  and  their  distance  from  each 
other.  All  the  truths  and  reasonings  of  geometry  are 
founded  on  a  few  simple  truths  which  are  self-evident  to 
all  who  possess  common  understanding.  They  cannot 
be  explained,  since  there  are  no  truths  of  a  more  sim- 
ple kind  by  which  they  may  be  illustrated.  Any  person 
who  does  not  perceive  that  a  whole  is  greater  than  a 
part,  or  that  two  things  equal  to  a  third,  must  be  equal 
to  one  another,  must  be  considered  as  wanting  in  what 
is  expressively  termed  common  sense.  Thus  it  is  that 
in  children  who  prove  to  be  idiots,  it  is  usually  first  ob- 
served that  they  do  not  understand  these  simple,  or  as 
philosophers  call  them  self-evident  truths.  If  a  child 
old  enough  to  comprehend  the  term  one,  does  not  under- 
stand that  one  and  one  make  two,  we  have  reason  to 
fear  that  it  has  no  understanding,  or,  in  other  words,  is 
a  fool.  Thus  the  ready  comprehension  of  self-evident 
mathematical  truths,  and  the  power  to  reason  from  these 
to  less  simple  truths,  is  considered  as  a  test  of  a  clear 
and  sound  understanding. 

Our  sex  have  been  allowed  to  possess  the  faculty  of 
imagination,  and  the  affections  of  the  heart,  in  a  superior 
degree ;  but  we  have  been  thought  deficient  in  reasoning 
powers.  Now  it  is  the  reasoning  faculty  which  distin- 
guishes the  human  species  from  the  brutes :  if  woman 
is  in  reality  devoid  of  this  noble  faculty,  then  is  she  a 
kind  of  intermediate  link  between  man  and  the  brute 
creation — and  the  Christian  religion,  like  the  Mahome- 
tan, should  have  provided  in  a  future  state  some  middle 
region  for  this  being,  who  is  neither  to  be,  like  the  brutes 
annihilated,  nor  like  the  nobler  part  of  creation,  entitled 


GEOMETRY.  247 

to  a  rank  among  superior  intelligencies.  But  it  is  unne- 
cessary to  urge  anything  on  this  point :  women  have  now 
little  to  complain  of,  with  respect  to  liberality  of  feeling 
towards  them,  on  the  subject  of  education.  Advantages 
are  now  placed  before  them  ;  they  may  prove  the  strength 
of  their  reasoning  powers,  in  the  study  of  mathematics, 
of  logic,  and  even  metaphysics,  without  fear  of  reproach 
for  attempting  to  pass  the  limits,  which  nature  has 
assigned  for  the  operations  of  their  minds.  It  is  for  you, 
young  ladies,  who  are  here  assembled,  to  prove  by  your 
own  example,  that  knowledge  is  not  to  be  a  curse  to 
your  sex ;  that  it  is  to  lead  them  in  the  path  of  duty,  not 
out  of  it ;  that  it  is  to  make  them  better  daughters,  wives, 
and  mothers;  better  qualified  for  usefulness  in  every  path 
within  the  sphere  of  female  exertions.  By  being  enabled 
to  see  more  clearly  the  peculiar  obligations  which  devolve 
upon  you  in  your  various  relations,  and  to  discern  the 
boundary  between  your  duties,  and  those  of  the  other 
sex,  shall  it  be  that  you  will  the  more  seek  to  pass  that 
barrier,  which  the  Almighty  himself  in  the  peculiarities 
of  physical  as  well  as  mental  constitution,  has  estab- 
lished between  the  sexes  ?  You  are  not  called  upon  to 
lead  armies,  to  make  and  execute  laws,  and  to  preside 
over  public  safety.  But  you  may  be  called  upon  to  pre- 
side over  the  domestic  circle,  to  regulate  families  by  your 
wisdom,  and  to  guide  and  enlighten  the  youthful  mind: 
— in  the  proper  performance  of  these  duties,  will  you 
need  all  that  clearness  of  reason,  and  solidity  of  judg- 
ment to  which  a  thorough  and  well-conducted  education 
may  conduce.  The  object  in  all  attempted  improvements 
in  female  education,  should  not  be  to  lead  woman  from 
her  own  proper  sphere,  but  to  qualify  her  for  the  better 
discharge  of  those  duties  which  lie  within  it.  It  is  for  you 
to  prove  by  meek  and  gentle  manners,  by  your  pious  walk 
and  conversation,  that  the  daughters  of  Eve  may  eat  of 
the  tree  of  knowledge,  without  danger  or  sin.  No  law, 
divine  or  human,  forbids  that  the  female  mind  should 
seek  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  science — and  may  we 
not  hope  that  the  sad  consequences  of  the  disobedience 
of  the  first  woman,  will,  in  some  degree,  be  averted  from 
the  earth,  by  enlightening  the  minds  of  her  daughters  ? 


248  GEOMETRY. 

But  we  have  wandered  from  our  immediate  subject, 
in  following  a  train  of  thought  which  naturally  presented 
itself.  We  have  spoken  of  the  origin  and  meaning  of 
geometry.  It  remains  briefly  to  trace  its  progress.  From 
Egypt,  it  is  said  to  have  been  carried  to  Greece  by  Thales, 
who,  not  satisfied  to  teach  the  Greeks  what  he  had  learn- 
ed from  the  Egyptians,  enriched  the  science  with  many 
propositions  of  his  own.  Pythagoras  afterwards  success- 
fully cultivated  geometry,  and  added  to  it,  among  other 
propositions,  that  of  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse. 
Anaxagoras  and  Plato  studied  to  explain  the  quadrature 
of  the  circle  ;  but  Euclid,  who  lived  four  hundred  years 
before  Christ,  and  fifty  after  Plato,  collecting  all  the  truths 
that  his  predecessors  had  discovered,  and  adding  many  of 
his  own  propositions,  may  be  considered  as  having  estab- 
lished the  science  on  a  firm  foundation.  Of  all  sciences, 
none  now  remains  so  nearly  as  it  existed  in  ancient  days 
as  that  of  geometry.  The  work  of  Euclid,  although  many 
improvements  have  professedly  been  made,  still  remains 
much  as  he  left  it. 

We  shall  not  consider  the  subject  of  Mixed  Mathemat- 
ics separately.  Those  of  you  who  are  now  studying  these 
subjects,  as  illustrated  in  Enfield's  Philosophy,  are  mak- 
ing a  practical  application  of  algebra  and  geometry. 
You  should  as  far  as  possible  connect  with  your  investi- 
gations the  idea  of  actual  substances;  for  the  mere 
theory  of  mechanics  or  optics  is  of  little  use,  without  a 
knowledge  of  their  applications  to  the  common  objects 
around  you.  I  recently  heard  a  young  lady,  who  had 
studied  optics,  call  that  a  shadow  upon  the  water, 
which  was  a  reflection.  Females  are  not,  in  general, 
as  practical  as  the  other  sex;  they  are  much  less  abroad, 
where  the  operations  and  phenomena  of  nature  may  be 
observed,  and  they  find  it  more  difficult  to  transfer  their 
views  from  their  books  to  nature.  Those  of  you  who  are 
studying  Enfield,  might  learn  much  practical  science 
from  an  unlettered  farmer  or  mechanic,  who,  although  he 
could  not  explain  the  principles  of  motion  and  force  by 
mathematical  demonstrations,  might  yet  teach  you  many 
useful  facts,  learned  by  experience  and  observation. 
In  concluding  this  lecture,  I  would  remark  that  it  is  far 


RHETORIC.  249 

from  my  intention  to  depreciate  those  many  excellent  and 
elevated  women,  who  have  honorably  discharged  their 
duties  in  life,  without  a  knowledge  of  mathematics,  or 
without  those  advantages  for  mental  improvement  which 
females  at  the  present  day  enjoy ; — such  cases  do  not 
invalidate  any  of  the  arguments  we  have  offered  on  this 
subject.  These  are  the  very  women,  who,  with  lofty  views 
of  female  duty  and  influence,  and  a  strong  sense  of  the 
weakness  of  their  sex,  would  be  the  first  to  plead  that 
they  might  be  better  fitted  to  discharge  their  duties,  to 
exert  a  beneficial  influence,  and  that  their  minds  might 
be  strengthened  and  fortified  by  a  judicious  and  liberal 
education. 


LECTURE  XX. 

HJwtoric,  Criticism,  Composition* 

THR  studies  of  Rhetoric  and  Criticism,  are  more  es- 
pecially designed  for  the  cultivation  of  those  faculties  of 
mind,  called  taste  and  imagination.  Taste  has  by  many 
writers  been  termed  a  simple  independent  power  or  sense ; 
but  by  Dr.  Brown  it  is  considered  as  a  complex  state  of 
mind,  which  may  be  analyzed  into  judgment  and  an  ewo- 
tion.  The  human  mind  is  formed  with  a  susceptibility  of 
certain  emotions,  as  beauty,  sublimity  and  ludicrousness ; 
these  emotions  are  those  on  which  taste  chiefly  depends,  or 
which,  in  conjunction  with  judgment,  constitute  taste. 
Thus  a  painter,  having  experienced  the  emotion  of  beauty, 
exercises  his  judgment  in  forming  such  combinations  as 
may  produce  in  others  the  same  emotion.  A  poet  must  have 
experienced  emotions,  before  he  can  by  an  effort  of  art 
produce  them  in  others ;  and  he  exercises  his  judgment 
no  less  in  the  selection  and  combination  of  his  images, 
than  the  chemist,  who  puts  together  substances  in  order 
to  produce  a  certain  result.  That  is,  both  the  poet  and 
chemist  judge  of  the  fitness  of  ideas  and  of  objects  to  pro- 
duce their  determinate  effects.  *" 


250  RHETORIC. 

For  a  clear  and  interesting  explanation  of  the  elements 
of  taste,  and  of  its  three  most  essential  qualities,  refinement, 
delicacy  and  correctness,  I  would  refer  you  to  the  inter- 
esting and  useful  system  of  Rhetoric,  now  adopted  as  a 
class  book  in  this  Institution.*  The  author  of  this  work 
has  taken  up  the  subject  in  a  philosophical  and  practical 
manner.  He  at  once  informs  the  student  that  the  art  of 
writing  well,  is  not  to  be  obtained  by  a  set  of  rules,  but 
that  '  the  store-house  of  the  mind  must  be  well  filled  ;  and 
he  must  have  that  command  of  his  treasures  which  will 
enable  him  to  bring  forward,  whenever  the  occasion  may 
require,  what  has  been  accumulated,  for  future  use.'  He 
dwells  particularly  upon  the  necessity  of  mental  discipline, 
especially  the  previous  cultivation  of  the  reasoning  pow- 
ers; and  observes  that  '  the  student  who,  in  the  course  of 
his  education  is  called  to  search  for  truth  in  the  labyrinth 
of  metaphysical  and  moral  reasonings,  and  to  toil  in  the 
wearisome  study  of  the  long  and  intricate  solutions  of 
mathematical  principles,  is  acquiring  that  discipline  of 
the  mind,  which  fits  him  to  distinguish  himself  as  an  able 
writer. 

You  will  perceive  that  the  different  branches  of  know- 
ledge we  have  already  considered,  are  all  conducive  to 
one  great  end,  that  of  enabling  a  person  to  compose  with 
elegance  and  facility.  And  is  this  an  object  of  little  im- 
portance, even  to  our  sex  ?  We  are  permitted  to  use  the 
pen  as  our  tastes,  genius,  or  mental  acquirements  may 
direct.  Even  the  composition  of  a  simple  note  of 
ceremony,  attests  the  fact  of  mental  cultivation,  or  the 
want  of  it;  and  a  letter  on  the  most  common  subject, 
plainly  indicates  the  nature  of  the  writer's  education. 
Higher  efforts  of  mind,  such  as  stories  for  children,  re- 
ligious tracts,  and  works  in  the  various  departments  con- 
nected with  education,  are  all  now  considered  as  offering 
proper  employment  for  the  exertion  of  female  talents. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  talents  should  be 
cultivated  with  the  most  assiduous  c-ire — that  the  various 
fields  of  knowledge  should  be  explored,  as  far  as  possible, 
in  order  to  become  a  successful  candidate  for  literary 
distinction.  The  time  has  gone  by,  when  a  publication 

*  Newman's  Rhetoric. 


RHETORIC.  257 

meets  with  indulgence,  because  its  author  is  a  woman ; 
we  must  now  expect  to  be  judged  by  our  real  merits,  and 
our  titles  to  approbation. 

Grammar  and  rhetoric  bear  to  each  other  an  intimate 
relation ;  the  former  teaches  the  method  of  speaking  and 
writing  with  accuracy,  the  latter  of  arranging  our  thoughts 
with  propriety  and  elegance.  The  science  of  rhetoric  is 
founded  upon  observations  made  by  philosophers,  of  the 
nature  and  operations  of  the  human  mind,  and  by  a  criti- 
cal analysis  of  the  style,  and  an  examination  of  the  meth- 
ods of  arrangement  of  those  authors  whose  works  have 
been  most  generally  approved.  The  chapter  on  Litera- 
ry Taste  in  Newman's  Rhetoric  is  well  written,  and  cal- 
culated to  give  just  ideas  of  the  peculiar  merits  of  dif- 
ferent authors ;  it  also  happily  illustrates  the  proper  use 
of  rhetorical  figures.  The  chapter  on  style,  is  an  inter- 
esting exposition  of  the  qualities  of  a  good  style,  and  the 
modes  of  writing  which  characterize  different  individu- 
als. This  little  work  leads  the  pupil  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  rules  and  principles  of  rhetoric,  in  an  easy  and 
simple  manner,  and  has  the  merit  of  more  originality  than 
many  school  books,  which  profess  to  be  improvements. 

Blair's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  have  been  deservedly  pop- 
ular :  they  are  writen  in  a  pure  and  concise  style ;  but  the 
larger  work  is  too  voluminous  for  beginners,  and  the 
abridgement,  as  is  usually  the  case,  is  a  mere  skeleton, 
without  suitable  illustrations. 

In  pursuing  the  study  of  rhetoric,  you  should  make  it 
your  constant  aim  to  render  your  knowledge  practical : 
you  should  examine  authors,  with  a  view  of  discovering 
their  peculiar  beauties  or  defects,  and  notice  their  use  of 
the  various  figures  of  speech  ;  each  of  which  you  should 
accustom  yourself  to  distinguish,  wherever  you  meet  them. 
This  might  be  rendered  interesting  as  an  amusement. 
When  several  young  ladies  are  passing  leisure  hours  togeth- 
er, one  might  ask  others  to  point  out,  in  a  certain  page  or 
chapter  of  a  book,  all  the  comparisons,  metaphors,  an- 
titheses, &/c.  which  could  be  found.  The  suggestion  and 
proper  uses  of  figures,  must  be  the  result  of  much  prac- 
tice in  composition,  as  well  as  the  fruit  of  learning.  The 
study  of  rhetoric  will  not  at  once  give  you  the  power  of 


252  CRITICISM. 

writing  with  ease  and  elegance  :  this  requires  a  know- 
ledge of  nature  and  of  the  human  heart,  a  habit  of  deep 
and  serious  reflection,  and  a  taste  at  once  delicate  and 
refined. 

Criticism  is  ranked  in  this  institution  as  a  higher  study 
than  the  elementary  works  on  rhetoric ;  it  is  indeed  a  de- 
partment of  rhetoric,  but  so  extensive,  that  it  has  been 
treated  separately  by  some  distinguished  writers.  The 
best  works  on  this  subject  which  are  now  before  the  pub- 
lic are  those  of  Kames,  Alison,  and  Campbell.  Kames' 
Criticism  contains  much  valuable  philosophy ;  the  author 
appears  to  have  studied  the  human  heart  with  considera- 
ble success  :  his  style  is  agreeable  and  he  carries  his  read- 
er along  with  him  in  an  easy  companionship.  The  stu- 
dy of  this  work  is  an  excellent  preparation  for  mental 
philosophy  ;  indeed  it  was,  by  the  author,  designed  to  hold 
a  middle  rank  between  moral  speculations  and  the  study 
of  the  natural  and  mathematical  sciences.  Without  at- 
tempting a  theory  and  classification  of  the  passions,  Lord 
Kames  gives  a  variety  of  practical  illustrations  of  their 
operations  and  moving  principles ;  and  such  as  are  cal- 
culated to  be  of  great  use  to  a  young  person  on  entering 
into  life.  The  greatest  objection  to  his  work  on  criticism 
is  the  occasional  obsoleteness  of  the  style,  (the  third  edi- 
tion was  published  as  far  back  as  1761)  and  a  want  of 
system  in  his  arrangements.  These  faults  may  be  rem- 
edied by  the  remarks  of  teachers,  and  care  on  their  part 
to  make  a  better  arrangement.  The  practical  part  of 
criticism  will  not  probably  be  acquired  in  a  very  great 
degree  by  the  study  of  Kames,  or  any  other  author ;  but 
a  new  stock  of  ideas  may  be  gained,  and  the  power  of 
making  for  yourselves  critical  distinctions. 

Alison  is  a  writer  of  peculiar  beauty  and  sweetness  : 
the  fault  in  his  work,  as  a  text-book  on  criticism,  is  that 
he  confines  himself  to  the  subjects  of  beauty  and  sublim- 
ity, a  sphere  too  circumscribed  for  so  extensive  a  science. 
The  politeness  and  respect  with  which  Alison  speaks  of 
the  '  profound  remarks  of  Lord  Kames/  furnish  a  pleas- 
ant contrast  to  the  illiberality  with  which  writers  often 
speak  of  those  who  have  preceded  them  in  any  particular 
department  of  literature.  The  whole  work  of  Alison  is 


CRITICISM.  253 

replete  with  beautiful  passages,  calculated  to  inspire  the 
reader  with  noble  and  just  sentiments.  In  his  essays  up- 
on the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  the  material  world,  he 
leads  the  mind  to  the  delightful  contemplation  of  nature 
and  the  Author  of  nature.  After  expatiating  on  the 
moral  effect  of  the  study  of  nature  upon  the  mind,  he 
finely  and  piously  observes  *  there  is  yet,  however,  a 
greater  expression  which  the  appearances  of  the  material 
world  are  fitted  to  convey,  and  a  more  important  influ- 
ence which,  in  the  design  of  nature,  they  are  destined  to 
produce  upon  us :  their  influence,  I  mean,  in  leading  us 
directly  to  religious  sentiment.  Had  organic  enjoyment 
been  the  only  object  of  our  formation,  it  would  have  been 
sufficient  to  establish  senses  for  the  reception  of  these 
enjoyments.  But  if  the  promises  of  our  nature  are  great- 
er— if  it  is  destined  to  a  nobler  conclusion — if  it  is  ena- 
bled to  look  to  the  Author  of  Being  himself,  and  to  feel 
its  proud  relation  to-  Him;  then  nature,  in  all  its  aspects 
around  us,  ought  only  to  be  felt  as  signs  of  his  providence, 
and  as  conducting  us,  by  the  universal  language  of  these 
signs,  to  the  throne  of  the  DEITY.' 

After  remarking  upon  the  effect  of  natural  scenery 
upon  elevated  minds,  he  adds :  ' Even  the  thoughtless  anM 
the  dissipated  yield  unconsciously  to  this  beneficent  in- 
stinct ;  and  in  the  pursuit  of  pleasure,  return,  without 
knowing  it,  to  the  first  and  the  noblest  sentiments  of  their 
nature.  They  leave  the  society  of  cities,  and  all  the  ar- 
tificial pleasures,  which  they  feel  to  have  occupied,  with- 
out satiating  their  imagination.  They  hasten  into  those 
solitary,  and  those  uncultivated  scenes,  where  they  seem 
to  breathe  a  purer  air,  and  to  experience  more  profound 
delight.  They  leave  behind  them  all  the  arts,  and  all 
the  labors  of  man,  to  meet  nature  in  her  primeval  mag- 
nificence and  beauty.  Amid  the  slumber  of  their  usual 
thoughts,  they  love  to  feel  themselves  awakened  to  those 
deep  and  majestic  emotions  which  give  a  new  and  a  no- 
bler expansion  to  their  hearts,  and  amid  the  tumult  and 
astonishment  of  their  imagination, 

To  behold  the  present  God 
On  the  rocks  by  man  untrod, 

22 


254  COMPOSITION. 

On  the  hill-tops  wild  and  rude, 
On  the  cliff's  deep  solitude. 
Where  the  roaring  waters  move, 
In  the  darkness  of  the  grove.' 

It  is  particularly  on  account  of  its  moral  effect  that  it 
is  of  so  much  consequence  to  encourage  their  instinctive 
taste  for  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  nature.  While  it 
opens  to  the  mind  of  childhood,  or  youth,  a  source  of  pure 
and  of  permanent  enjoyment,  it  has  consequences  on  the 
character  and  happiness  of  future  life,  which  they  are 
enabled  to  foresee.  It  is  to  provide  them,  amid  all  the 
agitations  and  trials  of  society,  with  one  gentle  and  an- 
reproaching  friend,  whose  voice  is  ever  in  alliance  with 
goodness  and  virtue,  and  which,  when  once  understood, 
is  able  both  to  soothe  misfortune,  and  to  reclaim  from 
folly.  It  is  to  identify  them  with  the  happiness  of  that 
nature  to  which  they  belong ;  to  give  them  an  interest  in 
every  species  of  being  which  surrounds  them  \  and,  amid 
the  hours  of  curiosity  and  delight,  to  awaken  those  latent 
feelings  of  benevolence  and  of  sympathy,  from  which  all 
the  moral  or  intellectual  greatness  of  man  finally  arises, 
It  is  to  lay  the  foundation  of  an  early  and  of  a  manly 
piety  :  amid  the  magnificent  system  of  material  signs  in 
which  they  reside,  to  give  them  the  mighty  key  which 
can  interpret  them ;  and  to  make  them  look  upon  the 
universe  which  they  inhabit,  not  as  the  abode  of  human 
cares,  or  human  joys  only,  but  as  the  temple  of  the  LIV- 
ING GOD,  in  which  praise  is  due,  and  where  service  is  to 
be  performed. 

Composition. 

The  study  of  Belles  Lettres,  or  of  rhetoric  and  criticism 
is  introduced  into  education,  principally  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  young  in  the  art  of  composition.  It  is 
indeed  pleasant  to  be  able  to  judge  of  the  performances 
of  others,  to  know  the  causes  of  our  approbation  or  dis- 
approbation of  literary  works,  to  enter  into  the  secrets  of 
the  mind,  and  explore  its  mysterious  laws,  to  compare  the 
productions  of  genius  with  those  rules  which  nature  sug- 
gests, and  to  observe  the  uniformity  of  her  operations  in 


COMPOSITION.  255 

all  well  organized  minds  :  all  this  is  agreeable  ;  but  it  is  still 
more  desirable,  still  more  delightful  to  be  able  of  our- 
selves to  execute,  to  be  able  to  catch  the  ideal  train,  as 
they  glide  through  our  minds,  and  paint  them  in  all  their 
freshness  and  originality  for  our  own  future  examination, 
or  for  the  inspection  of  others. 

Of  all  the  enjoyments  granted  to  mortals,  this  is  prob- 
ably the  most  exquisite  and  the  most  elevated ;  to  behol  d 
before  us  the  image  of  our  own  minds,  the  glowing  tran- 
scripts of  our  own  thoughts,  as  delineated  by  ourselves  ;  it 
seems  to  assimilate  us  in  some  degree  with  the  great 
Creator  of  mind,  when  we  are  able  to  render  its  opera- 
tions visible.  Many  who  are  conscious  of  elevated 
thoughts  are  destitute  of  a  power  of  expression  suited  to 
these  ,•  many  in  whom  the  fire  of  genius  is  smothered  by  ig- 
norance and  prejudice,  feeling  within  themselves  the  work- 
ings of  a  latent  intellect,  sigh  for  education  as  the  great- 
est of  human  blessings,  the  means  of  elevating  the  mind 
and  rendering  its  operations  sources  of  the  highest  enjoy- 
ment. Under  the  greatest  disadvantages,  the  light  of  genius 
has  occasionally  burst  forth,  discovering  upon  the  shoe- 
maker's bench  a  tuneful  and  sentimental  Bloomfield,  or  at 
the  plough  a  noble  and  high-souled  Burns.  But  instances 
are  rare  in  which  unaided  genius  acquires  the  confidence 
to  come  forth,  and  try  her  pinions :  education  is  required 
by  most  minds  in  order  to  give  the  courage  and  skill  ne- 
cessary for  effort  in  the  regions  of  composition.  And  be- 
sides, we  must  acknowledge  that  genius  is  not  a  com- 
mon gift ;  I  mean  that  fire  which,  unless  it  can  have 
vent,  consumes  the  soul.  And  in  this  we  see  the  good- 
ness of  our  Creator ;  for  genius  is  of  too  fine,  too  exqui- 
site a  nature  to  bear  the  rude  contact  of  worldly  things ; 
it  droops  and  folds  its  wings  when  calamities  assail ;  even 
the  imaginary  sufferings  of  a  flower  transplanted  from  its 
own  home,  a  rose  plucked  from  its  parent  stem,  or  the 
agonies  of  a  poor  worm  or  insect,  are  sufficient  to  call  forth 
its  tender  and  plaintive  waitings, — how  then  can  it  look 
upon  human  sufferings,  poverty,  oppression,  injustice, 
treachery,  pain  and  death  ?  Indeed  we  often  see  that 
mind  which  exhibits  unequivocal  marks  of  genius,  earlv 
fading  away,  as  if  the  atmosphere  of  the  world  were  too 


256  COMPOSITION. 

cold  for  its  sensitive  nature ;  thus  have  Henry  Kirk  White 
and  Lucretia  Davidson,*  and  many  others  gradually  sunk 
to  an  untimely  grave,  apparently  through  an  excess  of 
sensibility. 

But  is  there  no  remedy  for  this  1  Must  the  fairest  and 
best  of  human  blossoms  be  given  up  to  be  chilled  by  the 
frosts,  and  blighted  by  the  mildews  of  an  ungenial  world  T 
Let  a  suitable  and  proper  direction  be  given  to  sensibili- 
ty, and  it  may  be  disciplined  and  chastened.  Let  educa- 
tion be  properly  conducted,  and  then  will  reason  and 
judgment  be  brought  to  sustain  and  guide  the  trembling, 
aspiring  etherial  spirit,  which  is  ever  shrinking  from 
real  evils  and  refusing  to  look  with  steady  eye  upon  the 
obstacles  in  the  pathway  of  life.  But,  supported  by  rea- 
son and  judgment,  sensibility  may  learn  to  encounter 
evils  and  to  overcome  difficulties  ;  especially  does  she  need 
the  aid  of  religion  to  reconcile  her  to  earthly  sufferings, 
in  view  of  a  happier  future.  I  have  spoken  of  sensibility, 
because  I  believe  it  always  belongs  to  true  genius,  and 
to  be  the  cause  of  those  frequent  failures  in  life  which  are 
observable  among  those  who  are  highly  gifted  ;  but  a  prop- 
er mode  of  education  may  do  much  towards  chastening, 
and  giving  it  a  right  direction. 

Lucretia  Davidson,  the  lovely  girl  whose  precocious 
powers  have  been  the  admiration  of  many,  probably  fell  a 
victim  to  an  extreme  and  morbid  sensibility  :  many  of  you 
are  aware  that  several  years  since,  she  was  a  member  of 
this  institution ;  some  of  you  may  remember  her  personal- 
ly. She  had,  in  her  childhood,  been  indulged  in  her  fond- 
ness for  seclusion  and  solitary  musings.  Her  educa- 
tion, owing  to  peculiar  circumstances,  had  not  been  sys- 
tematically and  thoroughly  pursued.  On  her  entering 
the  Seminary,  she  at  once  surprised  us  by  the  brilliancy 
and  pathos  of  her  compositions, — she  evinced  a  most  ex- 
quisite sense  of  the  beautiful  in  the  productions  of  her 
pencil ;  always  giving  to  whatever  she  attempted  to  copy, 

*  Miss  Davidson  died  at  about  the  age  of  seventeen  ;  a  volume 
of  her  posthumous  works,  entitled  '  Amir  Kahn,  and  other  Poems/ 
has  received  much  praise  from  critics.  The  British  Reviewers 
spoke  of  it  as  an  extraordinary  production,  comparing  her  to  their 
favorite  and  lamented  White. 


COMPOSITION.  257 

eertain  peculiar  and  original  touches  which  marked  the 
liveliness  of  her  conceptions,  and  the  power  of  her  genius 
to  embody  those  conceptions.  But  from  studies  which 
required  calm  and  steady  investigation,  efforts  of  memo- 
ry, judgment  and  consecutive  thinking,  her  mind  seem- 
ed to  shrink.  She  had  no  confidence  in  herself,  and  ap- 
peared to  regard  with  dismay  any  requisitions  of  this  na- 
ture. Even  in  geography,  which  was  one  of  her  studies, 
she  found  a  difficulty  in  preparing  herself  for  recitations. 
At  the  approach  of  an  examination,  she  was  agonized 
with  the  fear  of  disgracing  her  class  by  her  appearance  ; 
and  in.  order  to  calm  her  apprehensions,  I  had  promised 
to  ask  her  very  few  questions.  When  it  came  her  turn 
to  recite,  instead  of  taking  the  subject  next  in  order, 
which  would  have  been  an  explanation  of  the  *  geological 
structure  of  the  globe,7  and  which  the  poor  trembling  girl 
had  never  felt  an  interest  in  knowing,  I  asked  her  to 
give  some  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  torrid  zone. 
Miss  Davidson's  countenance  brightened  :  she  begun  with 
the  sweetest  tones  of  voice  to  describe  the  vegetable  won- 
ders of  those  regions,  the  spreading  bananas,  the  lofty 
bamboo  trees,  forests  rendered  impenetrable  by  the  lux- 
uriancy  of  vegetation,  and  blooming  wilh  perennial  ver- 
dure and  beauty.  She  spoke  of  the  mighty  elephant,  the 
hippopotamus,  rolling  his  enormous  bulk  along  the  rivers 
of  Africa,  the  fierce  lions  and  tigers,  poisonous  reptiles 
and  ensnaring  crocodiles,  the  great  anaconda,  wind- 
ing his  huge  coils  around  his  helpless  victim ;  nor  did  she 
fail  to  describe  that  dreadful  vampyre,  which  seeks  the 
traveller  in  his  hour  of  sleep  and  gluts  itself  with  his 
blood.  She  then,  with  a  new  and  kindling  emotion,  spoke 
of  the  brilliant  fire-flies  which  illuminate  those  regions 
in  the  night  as  with  a  mass  of  liquid  light,  of  the  bound- 
ing antelope,  and  of  the  beautiful  gazelle,  whose  brilliant 
and  fascinating  eyes  are  the  admiration  of  the  beholder. 
So  vivid  in  my  mind  is  the  recollection  of  her  animated 
and  enthusiastic  manner  at  that  time,  the  bright  flashing  of 
her  dark  eye,  and  the  glow  of  her  brilliant  complexion, 
that  the  conception  appears  like  reality,  and  it  seems  as  if 
she  now  stood  before  me,  the  living  image  of  youthful  ge- 
nius and  sensibility.  But  the  grave  has  for  many  years 
22* 


258  COMPOSITION. 

shrouded  her  form,  once  so  interesting.  We  may  not  ima- 
gine the  process  which  is  going  on  in  that  dreadful  labora- 
tory, where  the  elements  which  compose  the  human  body 
are  separated  and  set  free  to  enter  into  other  combina- 
tions ;  we  will  rather  say  with  the  poet, 

'  Not  to  the  grave  my  soul, 

Not  to  the  grave  descend  to  contemplate 

The  form  that  once  was  dear  !  ' 

it  is  better  to  think  of  the  spirit  as  disencumbered  of  its 
load  of  clay,  and  an  inhabitant  of  a  purer  world. 

I  have  introduced  the  character  of  this  young  lady  to 
show  you  the  great  importance  of  early  mental  discipline  ; 
for,  lovely  as  genius  and  sensibility  may  be,  in  order  to  be 
useful,  in  order  to  be  fitted  for  life,  they  must  be  sustained 
by  the  other  mental  powers.  We  see  the  evils  of  suffering 
any  one  department  of  mind  to  usurp  unlimited  power  over 
the  other.  If  one  could  not  be  a  fine  writer,  without  be- 
coming unfit  for  the  duties  of  life ;  if  talents  were  necessari- 
ly connected  with  eccentricities,  I  would  at  once  warn  all 
my  sex  from  attempting  to  acquire  these  dangerous  gifts; 
but  I  trust  it  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  point  out  the  ma- 
ny ladies  who  at  this  time  hold  an  important  standing  in 
the  literary  world,  and  are  yet  among  the  most  active 
supporters  of  social  and  religious  institutions,  who  are 
equally  distinguished  for  domestic  virtues  as  for  high 
mental  endowments. 

But  we  are  yet  to  go  back  to  the  first  attempts  of  the 
pupil  in  the  art  of  composition ;  this  it  is  necessary  to 
do  for  the  benefit  of  the  younger  members  of  the  institu- 
tion, and  of  some  others  to  whom  the  idea  of  writing 
compositions  is  new  and  appalling. 

Those  who  are  studying  languages,  will  derive  great 
assistance  in  composition  from  the  habit  of  translating. 
It  appears  to  me  that  this  advantage  has  not  been  suf- 
ficiently estimated  "  were  it  indeed  the  only  one,  I  should 
think  it  a  sufficient  compensation  for  the  labor  which  is 
necessary  in  acquiring  a  language.  If  you  take  a  fine 
passage  of  a  Latin  or  French  author,  and  attempt  to  trans- 
late it,  the  mind,  gradually  seizing  upon  the  ideas,  seems 
to  adopt  them  as  its  own  ;  and  feeling  itself  elevated  by 
this  new  acquisition,  becomes  capable  of  greater  efforts. 


COMPOSITION. 

In  translating,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  exact  import  of  words ;  thus,  the  word  sentiment  which 
in  English  is  applied  to  opinions,  is  in  French  restricted 
to  the  feelings  of  the  heart,  it  being  derived  from  the  verb 
sentir,  to  feel.  The  French  would  not  then  speak  of  po- 
litical sentiments,  but  political  opinions;  they  would  speak 
of  a  sentiment  of  gratitude  or  love  :  when  you  reflect  on 
the  origin  of  the  word  sentiment,  you  will  perceive  that 
there  is  a  propriety  in  making  this  distinction  between 
this  word  and  opinion,  which  is  derived  from  a  Latin  verb 
signifying  to  believe.  To  those  of  you  whose  under- 
standing and  observation  have  not  furnished  you  with  a 
stock  of  ideas  for  composition,  translation  may  be  recom- 
mended as  a  substitute,  until  you  shall  have  acquired  the 
confidence  and  ability  to  compose. 

I  am  aware  that  of  all  your  exercises,  many  of  you  find 
original  composition  the  most  difficult ;  indeed  it  is  not 
strange  you  do  so :  when  you  write,  you  can  only  express 
by  written  characters  the  thoughts  which  you  have  gain- 
ed by  reflection  and  observation.  If  you  have  reflected 
or  observed  but  little,  your  stock  of  intellectual  wealth 
must  be  small ;  and  who  can  impart  to  others  that  which 
they  do  not  possess?  It  may  be  said,  then,  why  should 
we  be  required  to  write  compositions  before  we  are  capa- 
ble of  writing  well  1  I  answer,  that  if  you  have  but  a 
small  capital  to  begin  with,  your  stores  will  increase  by 
use  ;  but  permit  me  to  caution  you  as  to  a  choice  of  sub- 
jects ;  for  beginners  in  composition,  often  choose  such  as 
would  require  a  philosopher  to  investigate. 

For  example,  let  us  suppose  a  young  Miss,  unaccus- 
tomed to  confine  her  thoughts,  for  any  length  of  time, 
to  any  given  subject,  writing  a  composition  on  Grat- 
itude. She  has  a  vague  idea  that  gratitude  is  some- 
thing praise-worthy,  and  begins  by  saying,  '  that  it  is  a 
virtue  that  all  should  possess.'  When  she  has  proceeded 
so  far,  she  does  not  well  know  what  more  to  say ;  but 
the  composition'imust  be  written  ;  and  so  she  proceeds 
to  say  that  *  every  one  ought  to  be  grateful,  and 
when  they  see  people  in  distress,  they  ought  to  relieve 
their  wants: — thus  she  goes  from  gratitude  to  benevo* 


260  COMPOSITION. 

lence,  and,  confounding  the  two  virtues,  destroys  all  dis- 
tinctions of  terms  and  ideas. 

It  is  very  important  that  in  your  attempts  at  writing 
you  confine  yourselves  to  subjects  with  which  you  are  in 
some  degree  familiar.  No  matter  how  common,  or  tri- 
vial may  be  the  theme ;  the  object  is  to  acquire  a  habit 
of  expressing  your  ideas  in  writing,  with  clearness  and 
simplicity.  For  example,  give  a  description  of  your  own 
dwelling  house,  state  its  length,  width,  and  mode  of  con- 
struction, the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed ;  and 
a  little  reflection,  with  some  previous  learning,  would 
suggest  to  you  the  improvements  which  have  been  made 
in  the  building  of  houses  and  other  kinds  of  architecture. 
You  might  describe  your  own  room,  with  its  furniture, 
&>c. ;  or,  looking  out  upon  the  prospect  before  you,  deline- 
ate in  words  the  various  objects  before  you.  Any  pro- 
duction of  nature  or  art,  might  furnish  you  with  ideas. 
For  instance,  suppose  you  should  write  about  an  apple 
— you  may  think  this  a  very  insignificant  subject — but 
nothing  that  God  has  made  is  insignificant ;  nor  is  the 
power  of  describing  the  most  common  object  to  be  des- 
pised. Well,  now  begin  to  think  what  you  could  find  to 
say  about  an  apple :  you  all  know  to  which  of  the  king- 
doms of  nature  it  belongs  ;  you  know  that  it  is  a  fruit, 
originating  from  a  flower  of  a  certain  kind — the  kind  of 
flower  might  be  described,  the  usual  height  of  the  tree 
on  which  it  grows,  the  climate  most  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  this  tree,  the  various  culinary  uses  of  the  apple, 
the  evil  purposes  to  which  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  per- 
verted it,  &c.  I  have  yet  touched  upon  few  of  the  sub- 
jects which  your  theme  might  suggest,  and  yet  much 
might  be  said  upon  each  one  of  the  abovementioned 
heads.  A  fly,  a  bee,  or  a  butterfly,  might  afford  subjects 
for  your  pen.  I  do  not  mean  that  you  are  in  your  de- 
scriptions of  an  apple  or  an  insect,  to  write  as  a  botanist 
or  geologist  would  do,  but  that  you  express  in  simple 
language  your  own  observations  upon  these,  or  any  other 
objects.  I  have  said  your  own  observations ;  you  will 
please  to  notice  this,  for  without  observation  you  cannot 
write  on  any  subject,  except  it  be  merely  to  repeat  like 
the  parrot,  what  you  hear  from  others.  But  by  attempt- 


COMPOSITION.  261 

ing  to  describe  common  objects  you  will  see  the  need  of 
observation  and  attention  with  respect  to  common  things, 
and  that  learning  is  not  confined  to  the  knowledge  which 
is  contained  in  books. 

By  using  your  knowledge,  however  small  the  stock  at 
first  may  be,  you  will  continue  to  add  to  your  intellectu- 
al stores ;  the  idea  of  wanting  to  know  something  that 
you  may  communicate  in  your  composition,  will  induce 
you  to  pay  attention  -to  objects  around  you,  to  hear  the 
remarks  of  wiser  people,  and  to  recollect  what  you  read 
in  books.  But  do  not  allow  yourselves  to  borrow  from 
others.  On  reading  a  very  spirited  or  profound  compo- 
sition from  a  young  lady  of  limited  talents  and  opportu- 
nities, a  teacher  immediately  believes  that  it  is  borrowed, 
even  should  it  chance  that  she  has  not  before  seen  the 
same  thing.  This  is  not  only  stealing,  but  defrauding 
yourselves.  If  you  begin  with  compositions,  above  your 
own  capacities,  you  must  continue  them,  or  the  deception 
will  at  once  appear  to  your  companions,  as  well  as  teach- 
ers. But  I  should  very  unwillingly  believe  that  any  pu- 
pil can  be  so  lost  to  honorable  sentiments  as  to  wish  to 
gain  reputation  for  talents  she  does  not  possess,  or  so 
unjust  to  herself  as  to  prevent  her  own  improvement  in 
the  attempt  to  seem  to  be,  what  she  is  not. 

You  have  heard  some  things  that  may  be  said  upon 
an  apple.  Look  around  you,  and  you  see  innumerable 
objects  in  the  productions  of  nature  and  art;  all  of  these 
have  peculiarities  of  their  own,  which  may  be  describ- 
ed|even  with  no  other  knowledge  of  them,  than  you  may 
gain  by  your  sight,  hearing,  taste,  touch  and  smell, — in- 
numerable comparisons  between  these  objects  will  also 
naturally  suggest  themselves  to  your  minds ;  as  you  ac- 
quire more  knowledge,  you  will  think  of  many  relations 
existing  between  them  which  you  now  do  not  observe. 
The  subject  of  geology,  on  which -you  all  have  the  advan- 
tage of  hearing  lectures,  will  serve  to  lead  even  the 
youngest  of  you  to  reflect  on  the  many  things  which  may 
be  said  even  of  stones.  You  have  perhaps  thought  that 
all  were  alike,  but  you  now  find  that  there  is  diversity 
of  character  among  rocks,  as  well  as  people.  The  rocks 
are  not  morally  or  intellectually  different  from  each  oth- 


262  COMPOSITION. 

er,  since  they  are  destitute  of  intelligence,  and  even  of 
life,  which  plants  possess — but  rocks  and  stones  are  phy- 
sically different,  that  is,  their  external  appearance  is  va- 
rious, and  their  chemical  composition  different. 

When  you  walk  or  ride  out,  you  can  always  meet  with 
something  animate  or  inanimate  that  may  serve  for  the 
subject  of  a  composition.  When  you  see  a  person  in  af- 
fliction, or  behold  some  one  debased  by  intoxication,  or  ta- 
king the  name  of  God  in  vain,  emotions  of  various  kinds 
will  be  awakened,  and  under  the  influence  of  these  you 
might  be  led  to  write  with  facility.  When  you  see  a  good 
person  relieving  distress,  you  will  sympathize  with  the  feel- 
ings of  those  who  receive  this  kindness,  and  thus  you  may, 
from  your  own  observation  and  reflection,  comprehend 
the  nature  and  obligations  of  gratitude.  Yet  still  you 
may  not  be  able  to  investigate  this  emotion  ;  for  in  order 
to  do  this,  you  would  need  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
operations  of  the  mind,  and  to  explore  the  recesses  of  the 
human  heart,  and  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect. 

Although  in  some  of  the  foregoing  remarks  I  have 
more  particularly  addressed  myself  to  the  younger  pupils, 
and  those  to  whom  the  exercise  of  writing  composition  is 
new,  I  would  say  to  all,  be  careful  of  going  out  of  your  own 
depth  ;  study  to  understand  the  nature  of  your  own  minds, 
and  occupy  yourselves  with  subjects  which  you  most  rea- 
dily and  fully  comprehend — write  as  if  you  had  something 
to  say,  riot  as  if  you  attempted  to  say  something  because 
you  must  write.  If  your  minds  are  properly  disciplined  to 
habits  of  reflection,  you  must,  with  all  that  you  are  now 
studying,  hearing  and  seeing,  have  something  to  say  re- 
specting your  own  observations,  reflections,  sentiments 
and  opinions.  It  is  well  for  advanced  pupils,  to  write 
frequently  on  the  subjects  which  they  are  engaged  in 
studying. 

A  pupil  in  astronomy  having  beheld  the  heavens, 
traced  the  path  of  the  constellations,  contemplated  the 
planets  and  the  fixed  stars,  as  they  are  arranged  in  their 
beautiful  order,  may  surely  find  enough  to  say  of  such 
observations — she  might,  as  genius  or  inclination  prompt* 
ed,  state  in  precise  and  scientific  language  the  various 
celestial  phenomena2  or  with  an  imagination  kindjing  at 


COMPOSITION.  263 

such  scenes  rise  to  a  style  of  sublimity.  Or  if  a  Christian, 
and  impressed  with  the  thoughts  of  the  Divine  Power 
which  created  and  upholds  this  wonderful  universe,  she 
would  naturally  be  led  to  pour  forth  the  devout  expressions 
of  a  pious  heart.  Mechanical  philosophy,  optics,  botany, 
chemistry,  and  all  physical  subjects,  should  lead  the 
mind  of  the  student  to  the  observation  of  nature,  and 
such  observations  will  furnish  matter  for  composition. 

History  and  geography  are  fruitful  in  subjects  for  the 
exercise  of  the  pen.  Rhetoric  and  criticism  are  intend- 
ed chiefly  to  teach  you  to  arrange  your  thoughts  with 
clearness  and  elegance,  and  to  avoid  errors  which  might 
offend  the  ear  of  taste,  and  rules  of  composition.  Moral 
philosophy,  leading  the  mind  to  reflect  upon  the  recipro- 
cal duties  of  mankind,  and  their  common  obligations 
to  their  Maker,  cannot  fail  to  suggest  new  trains  of 
thought. 

And  when  the  empire  of  the  human  mind  is  first  un- 
folded, as  it  were,  upon  a  map  before  you,  and  the  many 
devious  windings  of  thought  traced  to  their  mysterious 
sources  ;  when  you  are  first  led  to  perceive  that  the  mind 
possesses  the  power  of  looking  inwardly  upon  its  own  ope- 
rations, how  many  new  and  interesting  ideas  spring  into 
existence  !  Copy  these  in  their  own  native  freshness 
and  vividness  of  coloring,  and  the  transcript  cannot  fail 
of  being  delightful  to  others. 

The  first  impressions  which  the  various  branches  of 
literature  and  science  make  upon  the  mind,  have  a  char- 
acter of  originality  and  enthusiasm,  which  cannot  after- 
wards be  caught — these  evanescent  emotions  should 
then  be  secured  by  copies  made  when  they  are  fresh 
and  new. 

I  have  not  recommended  the  attempt  to  write  stories 
from  the  imagination  ;  this  may  be  well  occasionally,  but 
it  has  the  bad  effect  of  bringing  the  mind  too  much  un- 
der the  dominion  of  fancy.  It  is  better  for  young  ladies 
to  occupy  themselves  with  realities,  than  to  stray  too 
much  into  the  dangerous  regions  of  imagination.  Besides, 
the  practice  of  writing  tales  has  a  tendency  to  form  a 
tinselled  kind  of  style,  not  to  be  compared  in  dignity  or 
propriety  with  a  simple  and  plain  manner  of  telling  truth. 


264  LOGIC. 

Indeed  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  as  the  various  departments 
of  human  knowledge  become  more  filled  with  facts,  and 
these  facts  are  arranged  according  to  the  rules  of  science, 
ample  scope  will  be  found  for  the  exercise  of  the  human 
faculties ; — and  although  we  desire  not  to  see  the  province 
of  fiction  deserted,  yet  we  would  see  a  higher  rank 
awarded  to  those  who  search  for  and  discover  truth,  who 
assist  and  perfect  nature,  than  to  the  fabricators  of  those 
gossamer  tales  which  receive  all  their  coloring  from  the 
varying  and  illusive  hue  of  fancy,  and  which  have 
no  higher  aim  than  the  amusement  of  hours,  which  are 
already  too  short  and  too  few  for  the  great  objects  of  hu- 
man existence. 

Poetry  is  a  species  of  composition  which  none  should 
attempt  except  those  who  are  strongly  prompted  by  genius. 
True  poetical  talent  is  rare,  and  can  never  be  forced  in- 
to existence  :  when  it  is  possessed,  it  should  be  regarded 
as  a  precious  gift  from  the  Creator  of  mind,  and  en- 
listed in  the  service  of  virtue  and  piety. 


LECTURE  XXI. 

Logic. — Moral  Philosophy. — Intellectual  Philosophy. 

THE  study  of  Logic  should  precede  that  of  Intellectual 
Philosophy.  As  it  is  now  taught,  this  science  differs 
much  from  the  logic  of  Aristotle  and  the  ancient  schools  ; 
with  them  it  was  a  tissue  of  subtleties  and  absurdities ;  it 
taught  to  support  both  truth  and  error,  furnishing  arms 
alike  to  both.  Amid  the  multiplicity  of  rules  for  the 
guidance  of  reason,  reason  herself  seemed  wholly  to  be 
lost  sight  of.  It  was  like  loading  a  warrior  with  armor, 
until  crushed  and  buried  beneath  its  weight.  The  ancient 
prejudices  with  respect  to  modes  of  reasoning,  for  a  long 
time  kept  every  science  in  a  state  of  obscurity ;  for  on 
the  free  exercise  of  the  reasoning  power  in  man,  depends 
every  degree  of  improvement  in  scientific  research ;  in- 


LOGIC.  265 

deed  there  can  be  no  research  when  reason  is  fettered. 
Thus  in  attempting  to  foster  and  improve  reason,  she  be- 
came bewildered  and  exhausted.  As  an  illustration  of 
the  absurdities  of  the  mode  of  reasoning  encouraged  by  the 
logic  of  the  schools,  the  following  story  has  been  related. 
'  The  son  of  an  unlettered  farmer,  who  had  been  sent  to 
college  for  his  education,  returned  to  his  father's  house, 
puffed  up  with  pride  and  expecting  to  astonish  and  em- 
barrass every  one  with  the  wonderful  extent  of  his  knowl- 
edge, and  the  sophistry  which  he  had  learned.  Sitting 
one  day  at  the  breakfast  table  with  his  honest  parents, 
the  young  pedant  observing  that  there  were  but  two 
eggs.  "  I  can  prove  to  you/'  says  he,  "  that  here  are 
three  eggs ; — here  are  one,  two ;  now,  father,  will  you  not 
allow  that  one  and  two  make  three  ?  "  The  father  could 
not  refute  the  argument,  although  it  contradicted  the  evi- 
dence of  his  senses ;  but,  taking  one  of  the  eggs  himself, 
and  giving  the  other  to  his  wife,  said,  "  As  for  you,  my  son,, 
you  may  take  the  third,  as  a  reward  for  your  learning."  ' 
The  proper  object  of  logic  is  to  teach  the  operations 
of  our  minds,  the  method  of  reasoning  and  arrange- 
ment which  is  conformable  to  those  laws,  and  to  dis- 
tinguish truth  from  error.  So  far  then  from  being  an 
artificial  science,  logic  ought  to  be  a  deduction  from  ob- 
servations made  upon"  the  nature  and  operations  of  the 
mind.  It  has  been  remarked  that  God  did  not  make 
man,  and  leave  Aristotle  to  complete  this  work,  by  giving 
him,  as  the  ancients  seemed  to  believe,  the  power  of  rea- 
soning. So  blindly  was  the  system  of  Aristotle  followed, 
that,  during  the  dark  ages,  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  it 
was  made  a  crime  punishable  with  death,  for  a  person  to 
advance  any  opinion  contrary  to  the  doctrines  of  that 
philosopher.  The  art  of  reasoning,  or  the  true  logic,  must 
have  been  coeval  with  the  dawning  of  the  human  under- 
standing. When  Adam  gave  names  to  the  beasts  of  the 
field,  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  the  fish  of  the  sea,  he  ex- 
ercised the  power  of  reasoning  with  as  much  propriety  as 
any  follower  of  Aristotle  could  have  done,  and  probably 
with  far  less  embarrassment.  The  latter  would,  in  the 
first  place,  have  needed  to  establish  syllogistically  the 
fact,  that  a  beast  was  not  a  fowl,  and  that  a  fowl  was  not 
23 


266  LOGIC. 

a  fish.  He  would  have  thought  it  necessary  to  decide 
whether  there  was,  in  reality,  any  such  thing  as  classes  of 
beings,  such  as  we  now  call  dogs,  cats,  horses,  &,c ;  or 
whether  putting  certain  beings  in  a  class  together,  and 
giving  them  one  common  name,  such  as  dog,  &-c.  does 
not  give  them  that  relation  to  each  other,  which  the  mind 
considers  as  belonging  to  individuals  of  the  same  class. 

The  ancient  Realist  would  have  gravely  decided  that 
we  must  look  into  our  minds  for  an  image  which  should 
be  the  representative  of  any  one  genus,  and  must  com- 
pare the  real  animal  with  the  idea;  thus  the  idea  or  image 
of  a  dog  in  our  minds  should  be  the  standard  to  which  all 
real  animals  which  were  to  be  included  under  the  genus 
dog,  must  be  found  conformable.  Plato  and  Aristotle 
were  Realists.  The  Nominalist  would  have  said  that  it 
was  of  no  consequence  what  animals  were  called  dogs, 
what  were  called  cats,  &,c. — for  by  giving  to  any  particu- 
lar number  the  same  general  name,  we  should  learn  to 
associate  them  in  our  own  minds  ;  thus,  when  the  word 
dog  was  called,  we  should  think  of  other  beings  of  the 
same  name,  although  this  resemblance  in  name  was  in 
fact  the  only  relationship  which  the  mind  acknowledged 
between  them. 

It  does  not  appear  that  Adam  was  troubled  with  any 
of  these  logical  subtleties,  with  respect  to  naming  the  an- 
imals. Endowed  by  his  Creator  with  the  power  of  per- 
ceiving resemblances,  and  probably  having  received  also 
aknowledge  of  language,  he  had  only  to  examine  the  dif- 
ferent created  beings,  in  order  to  perceive  at  once  cer- 
tain distinctive  characters  between  the  different  families, 
and  to  give  a  general  name  to  each  family  or  genus. 
Whether  the  names  which  he  gave  were  entirely  arbitra- 
ty,  or  founded  on  some  peculiarity  of  the  animal,  we  do 
not  know,  though  the  latter  appears  a  probable  supposi- 
tion. For  notwithstanding  the  many  transformations 
which  language  has  undergone  we  still  perceive  in  many 
cases  a  resemblance  in  the  sound  of  a  word,  and  the  an- 
imal which  it  denotes ; — thus  snake,  with  the  hissing 
sound  of  its  consonants,  and  its  drawling  termination 
seems  in  some  degree  to  suggest  the  being  to  which  it  is 
applied ; — the  name  bird  seems  indicative  of  a  quick, 


LOGIC.  267 

rushing  through  the  air  ;  tiger  seems  to  speak  of  ferocity, 
and  lion  of  courage.  How  far  our  associated  ideas  may 
influence  us  to  imagine  these  resemblances,  we  cannot 
well  say ;  though  this  circumstance  should  be  taken  into 
consideration.  You  may  be  ready  to  ask,  of  what  use  can 
it  be  to  study  logic,  if  it  serves  only  to  perplex  and  cloud 
the  mind  1  We  have  already  informed  you  that  the  true 
purpose  of  logic  is  to  assist  in  the  development  of  the 
reasoning  powers,  by  rules  drawn  from  observation  and 
experience  of  the  nature  and  operations  of  those  powers. 
Logic  is  not  to  teach  you  to  reason,  for  nature  does  this ; 
but  it  may  assist  you  by  pointing  out  those  methods  of 
study  and  investigation  which  people  of  reflection  and 
observation  have  found  to  be  most  useful  to  themselves 
and  others.  Those  who  have  studied  any  of  the  branches 
of  natural  science,  particularly  botany,  have  already  been 
initiated  into  the  principles  of  logical  division  and  meth- 
od. Mathematical  demonstration  is  but  the  constant 
practice  of  true  logic,  and  the  latter  science  will  be  to 
those  of  you  who  are  familiar  with  such  demonstrations, 
but  a  review  of  familiar  principles  and  facts. 

Hedge's  Logic  has  been  selected  as  our  text  book  in 
this  study ;  it  contains  the  most  useful  principles  of  the 
science,  and  is  little  encumbered  with  the  useless  rubbish 
with  which  antiquity  had  loaded  it.  In  recitations  in  this 
study,  it  is  very  difficult  to  change  the  language  of  your 
author  in  any  great  degree ;  the  precise  word  used  in  defi- 
nitions is  here  generally  the  very  one  which  is  needed, 
and  the  idea  might  be  changed  or  obscured  by  attempt- 
ing to  alter  the  mode  of  expression.  While  it  shows  a 
dull  and  mechanical  mind  for  a  pupil  to  be  always  confin- 
ed to  the  mere  words  of  a  text  book,  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  foolish  affectation  and  pedantry  to  avoid  with 
scrupulous  care  using  any  of  an  author's  expressions, 
however  fine  or  forcible  they  may  be.  You  never  need 
fear  being  suspected  of  learning  by  rote,  when  this  is  not 
the  case.  There  is  as  much  difference  in  the  manner  of 
recitation  between  one  who  understands  what  she  says, 
and  one  who  repeats  words  from  memory  merely,  as  be- 
tween the  chattering  of  a  parrot  and  the  conversation  of 
an  intelligent  person.  The  kindling  of  mind,  the  beam- 


268  LOGIC. 

ing  forth  of  intellect  is  never  to  be  confounded  with  me- 
chanical effort.  Before  closing  my  observations  upon  the 
study  of  logic,  I  will  read  you  a  translation  of  some  re- 
marks from  a  French  work,  entitled,  *  Conseils  D'  un  Pere 
Sur  Ij  Education  Des  Filles.  *  *  Teach  your  daughters 
to  search  for  principles  founded  in  truth  and  wisdom  ; — 
teach  them  to  contract  the  habit  of  ascertaining  as  far  as 
possible,  whether  what,  they  wish  to  do  is  conformable  to 
both  these ; — teach  them  to  doubt  upon  all  subjects  that 
are  not  evident,  but  that  when  they  have  well  examined 
the  foundation,  and  are  certain  of  the  correctness  of  the 
reasoning  founded  upon  a  sure  basis,  they  should  then 
know  how  to  stop.  Teach  them  not  to  wander  from  this 
focus  oflight,  but,  keeping  their  eye  fixed  upon  this  point, 
render  it  a  means  of  discovering  any  fluctuation  in  their 
future  opinions  or  conduct.  Correct  principles  are  a  port 
in  the  tempest ;  they  are  an  asylum  against  the  attacks  of 
error ;  an  inexhaustible  fountain  from  whence  the  streams 
which  flow  are  always  pure ;  an  unerring  compass  to 
whose  guidance  we  can  yield  ourselves  without  fear.  We 
are  strong  when  our  conduct  has  been  regulated  by  the 
rules  of  truth  and  honesty.  You  are  not  called  upon  to 
prepare  yourselves  for  the  pulpit  or  the  bar,  though  it  is 
well  for  you  to  be  capable  of  judging  of  the  merits  of 
those  who  do  appear  there ;  and  although  you  may  not  be 
called  to  proclaim  your  own  opinions,  you  may  have  the 
satisfaction  of  enjoying  in  secret  the  pleasure  of  being 
able  to  judge  and  to  appreciate  the  efforts  of  great  rninds. 
The  logic  which  we  wish  you  to  possess,  is  not  that  which 
leads  to  argument,  but  to  the  regulation  of  thought;  that 
which  shall  enable  you  to  establish  rules  for  your  own 
conduct.  We  would  wish  rather  to  perfect  you  in  the  art 
of  thinking  and  judging,  than  in  that  of  speaking  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  we  would  have  your  knowledge  made  sub- 
servient to  useful  purposes,  not  to  vanity  or  pedantry/ 

The  same  writer,  remarking  on  the  necessity  of  order 
in  the  train  of  thought,  says,  *  I  had  scribbled  long,  before 
I  knew  how  to  write  :  I  had  a  tumultuous  abundance  of 
ideas  ;  they  flowed  from  my  pen  with  great  facility  :  let- 

*  Counsels  of  a  Father  upon  the  Education  of  Daughters. 


MORAL    PHILOSOPHY.  269 

ters  cost  me  no  effort ;  but  when  I  came  to  treat  upon  se- 
rious and  complicated  subjects,  I  was  confused,  I  felt  that 
my  reasoning  had  not  that  tout  ensemble,  that  connexion 
which  characterizes  energy  and  clearness.  My  discours- 
es were  but  a  collection  of  incoherent  observations,  of 
isolated  reflections,  of  which  I  could  never  endure  the 
second  reading.  Ah,  how  many  manuscripts  have  I  not 
destroyed  in  impatience  and  discouragement !  At  length 
a  ray  of  light  dawned  upon  my  mind — before  beginning 
to  develope  a  subject,  I  traced  my  plan  ;  t  did  as  the  arch- 
itect who  determines  the  proportions  of  a  building  before 
laying  a  single  stone,  and  from  thence,  all  difficulties  in 
composition  disappeared  ! 

(  From  this  sincere  acknowledgement,'  continues  the 
same  author  *  you  may  form  an  idea  of  the  importance 
of  method  in  the  art  of  reasoning.  Principles  are  the 
base  and  the  fulcrum  of  every  work,  method  is  the  lever, 
and  analysis  the  proof. ,'  Is  not  then  a  rational  and  just 
logic  a  treasure?  Is  it  not  as  valuable  for  woman  as  for 
man,  since  the  government  of  her  thoughts,  and  the  reg- 
ulation of  her  conduct  is  of  equal  importance  ? 

Moral  Philosophy . 

Moral  Philosophy  is  addressed  both  to  the  heart  and  un- 
derstanding. It  should  commence  in  the  earliest  years 
of  childhood,  as  soon  as  the  little  being  destined  to  immor- 
tality begins  to  entertain  ideas  of  right  and  wrong. 
There  is  a  period  preceding  this,  when  the  child  is  to  be 
governed  wholly  by  "a  feeling  of  instinctive  obedience.  It 
sees  itself  in  the  hands  of  its  parents,  knows  that  they 
have  power  over  it,  and  learns  to  submit  its  will  to  theirs. 
But  as  soon  as  the  child  begins  to  exercise  its  reason,  as 
soon  as  the  moral  feeling  begins  to  unfold,  (we  are  here 
assuming  the  existence  of  a  principle  which  some  moral- 
ists or  rather  immoralists  deny)  then  should  its  moral 
education  commence.  It  should  be  taught  that  the  pa- 
rent does  not  exact  obedience  because  he  has  power  to 
do  it,  but  because  it  is  right,  because  the  parent  has  ex- 
perience and  knows  what  is  best.  If  one  child  take  from 

23* 


270  MORAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

another  its  toys,  because  it  has  greater  physical  strength, 
it  should  be  taught  that  power  does  not  make  right,  and 
that  it  is  wrong  in  any  case  to  take  what  belongs  to 
another,  without  the  owner's  consent. 

Thus  should  children,  from  the  dawning  of  reason,  be 
accustomed  to  reflect  upon  the  moral  relations  of  actions. 
The  science  of  Moral  Philosophy,  as  laid  down  in  books 
is  but  a  collection  of  those  rules  and  principles  which  are 
considered  as  the  proper  guides  of  moral  conduct,  and 
which  in  their  simple  forms  should  be  thus  taught  to 
children.  The  work  of  Dr.  Paley,  although  liable  to  some 
objections,  yet  retains  its  place  in  most  public  institu- 
tions. It  possesses  merits  of  a  kind  very  important  in  a 
school  book  ;  the  style  is  clear  and  simple,  the  method 
of  arrangement  calculated  to  aid  the  memory,  and  the 
reasoning  is  generally  precise  and  logical.  The  chap- 
ter on  the  moral  sense  does  not  appear  to  me  to  state  the 
subject  fairly,  or  to  give  to  the  argument  that  bearing 
which  religion,,  morality  and  experience  point  out. 

Consider  man  as  destitute  of  an  original  moral  feeling 
(the  term  sense  is  perhaps  an  objectionable  one)  and  how 
can  he  be  considered  an  accountable  being  ?  Is  it  not 
this  very  feeling,  implanted  by  God  in  the  human  heart, 
which  renders  man  a  moral  agent?  Is  not  this  moral 
feeling  the  foundation  of  all  our  ideas  of  right  and 
wrong?  If  right  depend  on  custom,  law,  the  will  of  a 
sovereign,  or  of  a  majority,  where  is  our  standard  ?  Dr. 
Paley  would  say,  the  revealed  will  of  God.  But  if  we  have 
no  natural  feeling  of  rectitude,  why  should  we  think  it  right 
to  render  obedience  to  our  Creator  ?  This  question  is  thus 
answered  by  Paley  :  '  We  believe  that  God  can  reward  or 
punish  us,  that  he  will  do  this  in  proportion  to  our  obe- 
dience or  disobedience,  therefore  we  will  comply  with 
his  will  for  the  sake  of  the  reward.' 

But  how  is  it  with  the  Creator  himself?  Are  his 
acts  good,  because  he  is  powerful ;  or  rather,  is  there  not 
such  a  thing  as  a  principle  of  goodness,  of  which  God  is 
the  fountain,  and  which,  when  he  created  man  in  his 
own  image,  was  imparted  as  the  vital  principle  of  the 
human  soul?  This  soul,  although  corrupted  by  the  fall, 
still  retains  a  portion  of  its  divine  principle,  which,  even 


INTELLECTUAL  PHILOSOPHY.          271 

in  the  most  debased  condition  of  mortals,  discovers  it- 
self by  the  remorse  and  shame  which  follow  vice.  With 
the  exception  of  what  I  consider  Dr.  Paley's  erroneous 
ideas  respecting  the  want  of  an  original  moral  princi- 
ple, and  the  necessary  consequences  from  this  which 
appear  in  his  definition  of  '  virtue,  right  and  wrong/ 
&c.,  I  regard  his  Moral  Philosophy  as  a  work  of  great 
merit  and  utility.  His  views  of  the  sabbath  are  how- 
ever far  from  being  admitted  by  all  Christians  ;  most  of 
whom  believe  that  the  Christian  sabbath  is  a  continua- 
tion of,  and  substitution  for  the  Jewish  sabbath,  and  that 
we  are  under  the  same  obligation  to  regard  the  fourth 
commandment  as  the  other  nine.  Dr.  Paley  considers 
it  expedient  and  proper  to  observe  the  sabbath  by  attend- 
ing public  worship  on  that  day,  and  devoting  as  much  time 
as  possible  to  spiritual  exercises ;  but  he  does  not  regard 
the  hallowing  of  the  Lord's  day  as  enforced  by  a  com- 
mand. 

Parkhurst's  Moral  Philosophy  is  designed  to  correct 
some  of  the  supposed  errors  of  Paley.  This  is  a  work  of 
much  merit,  and  may  be  read  with  advantage  by  pupils 
in  this  study.  In  our  moral  department  we  shall  con- 
sider the  importance  of  developing  and  fortifying  the 
moral  emotion,  and  also  its  connexion  with  our  duties 
towards  our  Maker. 

Intellectual  Philosophy. 

With  some  remarks  on  the  Philosophy  of  mind,  I  shall 
close  my  lectures  on  Intellectual  Improvement.  This 
science,  although  itself  the  main  spring  in  education,  is 
very  properly,  as  a  department  of  study,  the  crowning  of 
the  whole.  It  commences  with  some  knowledge  of  the 
operations  of  the  mind,  and  is  acquired  in  the  first  years  of 
life.  The  child  learns  to  know  the  opinions  and  emotions 
of  those  around  him,  by  means  of  external  signs;  and 
he  must  have  reasoned  upon  associated  feelings  be- 
fore he  can  have  known  how  to  move  compassion  by  his 
cries,  or  excite  laughter  by  his  playful  gambols.  Every 
year  of  life  increases  his  knowledge  of  miud  ;  he  feels 
himself  urged  by  motives,  he  perceives  a  controlling 


272  INTELLECTUAL    PHILOSOPHY . 

power  in  himself,  when  he  chooses  to  exert  it  lo  stop 
the  headlong  current  of  the  passions,  or  to  direct  them 
into  new  and  better  channels,  All  observations  upon  our 
own  characters  or  those  of  others  belong  to  mental  phi- 
losophy ;  this  is  the  most  valuable,  or  the  practical  part. 

When  therefore  you  commence  this  study  in  books, 
you  continually  meot  with  your  own  familiar  thoughts. 
You  had  often  observed  in  yourself  the  power  of  re- 
calling one  thing  by  the  help  of  others.  For  instance, 
when  you  had  entered  an  apartment  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  some  article,  you  perhaps  found  that  you  had 
forgotten  what  you  went  for  ;  you  were  unable  by  any 
effort  of  memory  to  recal  the  lost  idea,  but  by  return- 
ing to  the  place  from  whence  you  set  out,  were  remind- 
ed of  it  by  its  connexion  with  other  objects.  You  may 
not  have  formed  any  theory  of  the  principle  of  association, 
and  are  therefore  prepared  to  listen  with  attention  to  any 
explanation  of  phenomena  which  are  a  part  of  the  histo- 
ry of  your  own  thoughts. 

Mankind,  who  are  ever  prone  to  excesses,  have,  from  a 
period  in  which  the  study  of  the  human  mind  was  deem- 
ed above  the  comprehension  of  females,  and  unsuitable 
to  their  condition  and  character,  gone  to  another  ex- 
treme in  which  the  science  of  metaphysics  is  considered 
little  more  than  a  pi  ay  thing  for  children  ;  and  young  misses 
who  rmve  neither  yet  learned  to  think  methodically  or 
reason  accurately,  are  heard  to  talk  learnedly  of  the  opin- 
ions o  'Locke,  Stewart  and  Brown. 

Son  e  of  the  elementary  principles  in  the  science  of 
mind,  as  the  distinct  nature  and  different  destinations  of 
the  sonl  and  body,  the  superior  importance  of  the  spirit- 
ual pa:t,  and  the  child's  obligations  to  improve  his  men- 
tal fat  cities,  ought  early  to  be  pointed  out.  Such  works 
as  the  Child's  Book  on  the  Soul,*  which,  in  language 
adapf?l  to  the  capacities  of  children,  leads  them  to  re- 
flect (i  the  nature  and  operations  of  the  mind,  cannot 
be  too  highly  valued  by  parents  and  instructers.  These 
truths  form  the  foundation  of  all  religious  knowledge 

*  B\     Ir.  Gallaudet.     This  little  book  ought  to  be  found  in  all 
Sunday   -chool  libraries. 


INTELLECTUAL    PHILOSOPHY.  273 

and  belief;  a  belief  in  them  is  anterior  even  to  the  idea 
of  a  Creator.  When  the  child  in  answer  to  the  question, 
'  Who  made  you?'  replies  ' God/  he  must  comprehend 
the  truth,  that  there  is  a  being  whom  he  calls  himself, 
that  this  being  is  a  something,  unlike  a  stone  or  a  plant, 
neither  of  which,  he  knows,  could  understand  or  answer 
a  question. 

Although  some  of  the  leading  distinctions  between 
matter  and  mind  should  be  taught  even  to  children,  I 
cannot  agree  with  those  who  recommend  the  study  of 
metaphysics  as  a  preliminary  step  in  education,  on  the 
ground  that  pupils  must  be  made  to  understand  the  na- 
ture'of  the  mind;  because  that  in  education,  this  is  both 
the  instrument  with  which  the  operation  is  carried  on, 
and  the  object  which  is  operated  upon. 

We  might  as  well  insist  that  a  boy  was  not  qualified  to 
be  put  an  apprentice  to  a  carpenter,  without  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  on  which  the  lever  and  other  mechani- 
cal powers  operate ;  in  short,  without  understanding  the 
theory  of  mechanics.  If  a  child  could  not  compare,  rea- 
son or  remember  until  he  first  understood  the  powers  of 
his  own  mind,  and  the  abstract  nature  of  comparison,  rea- 
soning, &c.,  these  operations  could  never  be  performed  ; 
for  the  very  study  of  them  requires  their  constant  exer- 
cise, and  an  exercise  rendered  skilful  by  long  practice. 
If  the  writings  of  Stewart  orBrown  are  put  into  the  hands 
of  pupils  whose  minds  are  not  ripe  for  such  investigations, 
the  truths  and  reasonings  cannot  be  comprehended,  and 
a  rooted  dislike  will,  probably,  be  acquired  for  the 
study  of  mental  philosophy.  But  if  the  mind  has  been 
previously  prepared  by  suitable  discipline,  enriched  by  a 
knowledge  of  language,  of  history,  and  of  natural  science, 
so  that  illustrations  drawn  from  these  various  sources,  may 
be  comprehended  and  enjoyed,  then  will  the  science  of 
rnind  be  drank  in  with  a  new  and  enthusiastic  delight.  Of- 
ten have  I,*  with  sympathising  enjoyment  watched  the  kin- 

*  The  author,  during  several  years,  had  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment of  intellectual  philosophy  in  the  Troy  Female  Seminary, 
during  which  time  she  had  the  •  happiness  of  instructing  many 
3roung  ladies  of  distinguished  talents  and  virtues,  who  now  hold 
a  high  rank  in  society,  and  honorably  sustain  the  various  re  la- 


274  INTELLECTUAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

dling  glow  lighting  up  the  countenance  of  such  a  pupil,  on 
hearing  for  the  first  time  an  explanation  of  some  familiar 
operation  of  her  own  mind,  or  when  tracing  the  map  of 
the  human  intellect,  she  beheld  the  innumerable  little 
rills  which  flow  into  the  great  ocean  of  thought,  and  traced 
them  to  their  mysterious  fountain,  mind.  The  sub- 
lime truths  of  the  science  enter  the  soul  in  all  their 
freshness  and  beauty  ;  and  this  era  in  the  history  of  her 
own  mind  is  ever  remembered  with  deep  and  peculiar 
interest. 

I  would  not  be  understood  as  asserting  that  in  the 
study  of  mental  philosophy,  the  way  is  invariably  strewed 
with  flowers;  or  that  the  pupil  is  always  rewarded  by 
the  pleasure  of  eliciting  truth.  In  no  other  science  is 
there  such  a  tendency  in  authors  to  wander  into  the 
mazy  regions  of  hypothesis — fancying  that  a  new  ray  of 
light  has  fallen  upon  their  path,  they  often  begin  to  see 
things  in  a  different  aspect  from  their  predecessors;  and 
although  this  new  light  may  be  but  the  coruscation  of  a 
brilliant  fancy,  the  hues  which  it  imparts  are  looked  up- 
on as  so  many  revelations  made  by  the  torch  of  reason. 
Thus  have  metaphysicians  been  liable  to  be  misled  by 
false  lights,  ever  since  the  days  of  Aristotle,  who  asserted 
that  the  mind  resided  in  the  brain,  which  was  a  dark  cave 
filled  with  miniature  images,  called  thoughts,  that  came 
forward  for  the  inspection  of  consciousness,  as  they  were 
called  up  by  memory,  and  retreated  as  they  were  dis- 
missed by  abstraction. 

Since  the  time  of  Locke,  metaphysical  writers,  follow- 
ing his  example,  have  made  the  operations  of  the  mind 
or  its  faculties,  and  not  its  nature  or  essence,  the  object 
of  their  investigations.  These  operations  are  known  to 
us  but  in  two  ways,  experience  and  observation,  every- 

tions  of  life.  Not  a  few  are  among  that  class,  who  are  fulfilling 
one  of  the  noblest  and  most  important  offices  of  life,  that  of  teach- 
ing the  young  ;  while  others  are  exemplifying  in  the  domestic  cir- 
cle the  beneficial  influence  of  educated  women  upon  human  virtue 
and  happiness.  When  these  pages  shall  meet  the  affectionate 
glance  of  some  of  those  whose  memory  is  thus  dearly  cherished, 
the  eye  will  glisten  and  the  cheek  glow  at  the  recollection  of 
former  school-day  scenes,  of  companions  once  beloved,  and,  it  may 
be,  of  her  who  watched  over  their  intellectual  progress,  with  ma- 
ternal pride  and  anxiety. 


INTELLECTUAL    PHILOSOPHY.  275 

thing  gained  by  these  sources  is  an  addition  to  the  stock 
of  human  knowledge ;  the  great  point  is  to  know  how 
to  seize  upon  facts,  and  embody  them  in  a  manner  to  be 
intelligible  to  ourselves  and  others.  Facts,  in  order  to 
be  useful  in  science,  must  also  be  properly  arranged  ;  and 
the  difficulty  with  most  minds,  is  the  want  of  a  suitable 
mode  of  arrangement. 

Logic  and  criticism  are  instruments  which  teach  the 
arts  of  thinking  and  of  arranging  thoughts  :  metaphysics 
is  the  science  of  principles,  it  instructs  man  in  the  na- 
ture and  use  of  his  faculties ;  it  discovers  to  him  his  weak- 
ness, but  at  the  same  time  shows  him  his  strength  ;  it  ac- 
quaints him  with  the  extent  of  his  reasoning  powers,  and 
that  although  by  these  he  may  know  many  things,  there 
is  a  barrier  beyond  which  he  cannot  pass.  In  this  sci- 
ence we  learn  to  set  bounds  to  the  influence  of  human 
authority  upon  the  mind,  and  that  no  truths,  however 
strongly  urged,  should  be  received,  but  such  as  have  a 
claim  to  our  belief,  founded  upon  reason.  The  reason  of 
each  individual,  must  be  his  own  guide;  and  it  therefore 
becomes  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  reason  shall, 
as  far  as  possible  be  divested  of  prejudice,  and  assisted 
with  fixed  and  unerring  principles. 

In  speaking  of  the  influence  of  reason  in  matters  of 
belief,  I  would  here  observe,  with  respect  to  Divine 
revelation,  that  after  we  have,  by  weighing  its  evidences, 
become  convinced  that  it  is  in  fact  what  it  professes  to  be, 
the  word  of  God,  that  it  is  impossible  to  resist  the  unit- 
ed testimony  of  collateral  history,  prophecy,  the  evidence 
of  a  multitude  of  competent  witnesses,  and  the  evidence 
of  effects  now  before  our  eyes,  viz.  thousands  of  worship- 
ping assemblies  calling  on  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  and  break- 
ing bread  in  commemoration  of  his  sufferings — alter  we 
have  become  convinced  that  any  one  of  these  evidences 
would  be  sufficient  to  establish  their  authenticity,  and 
that  this  concurring  testimony  furnishes  a  mass  of  evi* 
dence  which  it  is  impossible  for  reason  to  resist  or  deny, 
we  must  then  fully  and  unreservedly  receive  the  Scrip- 
tures as  the  word  of  God.  Are  these  writings  sometimes 
mysterious  and  unintelligible  to  us?  So  is  the  moral 
government  of  God,  so  are  the  dispensations  of  his  provi- 


276  INTELLECTUAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

dence ; — are  the  truths  revealed  of  a  nature  which  human 
reason  cannot  fathom  ?  So  are  many  of  the  facts  in  the 
natural  world, — but  do  we  deny  the  influence  of  that  vital 
principle  which  is  the  spring  and  source  of  organic  life, 
because  it  is  invisible  to  us  ?  We  see  its  effects  and 
therefore  believe  in  the  cause.  Shall  we  deny  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  human  heart,  because 
'  it  is  a  still,  small  voice,  and  we  cannot  tell  whence  it 
cometh,  or  whither  it  goeth  1'  We  see  the  wicked  man 
turning  from  his  evil  ways,  the  proud  becoming  meek  ;  the 
drunkard,  temperate,  the  churl,  liberal,  he  who  once  scoff- 
ed at  religion  sitting  at  Jesus'  feet — and  shall  we  deny  that 
these  effects  are  uncaused,  because  we  cannot  explain 
them  by  deductions  from  humnn  reason  ?  Let  us  exalt 
human  reason  to  its  proper  rank,  let  us  walk  by  its  light 
when  we  have  none  clearer  ;  but  let  us  remember  too  that 
He  who  gave  man  reason,  and  who  *  seeth  not  as  man 
sees/  is  to  be  believed  and  obeyed  without  question  as  to 
the  propriety  or  expediency  of  his  commands. 

In  all  matters  of  human  knowledge  and  belief,  reason 
must  be  our  guide  :  when  we  find  a  subject  to  be  beyond 
our  capacity  we  should  cease  to  investigate.  Plutarch  ob- 
served that  as  geographers,  when  they  have  laid  down  up- 
on their  map  those  countries  which  are  known,  place  be- 
yond these  their  terra  incognita  or  unknown  lands  and 
seas,  so  historians  should  use  the  same  distinction  with 
respect  to  the  fabulous  and  uncertain  ages  of  the  world. 
Thus  should  we  in  all  our  researches  endeavor  to  distin- 
guish the  boundary  which  divides  the  legitimate  subjects 
of  human  inquiry,  from  what  is  beyond  the  knowledge 
of  man. 

No  farther  than  perception  will  carry  us,  can  we  go  in 
any  human  science ;  as  discoveries  are  made,  perception 
is  aided  and  rendered  more  acute ;  thus  the  telescope 
has  brought  the  planetary  worlds  nearer  to  us  and  re- 
vealed new  facts  with  respect  to  them,  which  are  added 
to  the  science  of  astronomy  ; — the  microscope  has  acquaint- 
ed man  with  new  wonders  in  the  kingdoms  of  nature, 
shewing  him,  where  vision  had  not  before  discovered 
life,  that  millions  of  living  things  exist,  which  we  inhale 
with  the  atmosphere,  and  drink  in  the  purest  water ;  that 


INTELLECTUAL  PHILOSOPHY.  277 

these  animalculae  inhabit  every  leaf,  fruit  and  flower;  and 
some  late  discoveries  would  almost  prove,  that  our  own 
material  frame  is  but  a  mass  of  living  atoms.  Wherever 
observations  can  be  made,  is  a  field  for  human  inquiry. 
But  all  questions  are  profitless,  which  relate  to  infinitude, 
as  infinite  space  and  eternity ;  to  the  connexion  between 
matter  and  mind,  and  to  their  essence;  the  inhabitants  of 
other  worlds,  and  everything  connected  with  a  future 
state,  except  as  revealed  in  the  word  of  God.  All  sub- 
jects of  this  nature,  should  be  considered  by  metaphysi- 
cians as  '  unknown,  lands  and  unapproachable  seas. 

It  is  important  that  you  should  all  understand  definite- 
ly, the  end  and  aim  of  the  studies  you  pursue.  Mental 
philosophy  would  be  of  little  use,  had  it  not  its  practical 
applications.  The  members  of  this  class  profess  to  study 
the  human  mind  ;  suppose  hereafter,  any  one  of  you 
in  promiscuous  society  should  unseasonably  introduce 
your  knowledge,  talk  fluently  of  the  opinions  of  Brown 
and  Stewart,  or  even  give  the  result  of  your  own  profound 
reflections,  would  this  show  that  you  practically  under- 
stood the  human  mind,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  ex- 
pressed, human  nature  '!  It  is  to  be  presumed  you  would 
all  wish  to  please,  when  this  can  be  done  without  any 
sacrifice  of  principle ;  that  you  would  not  willingly  dis- 
gust others,  or  acquire  the  reputation  of  being  pedan- 
tic. A  knowledge  of  the  operations  of  the  mind, 
should  lead  you  to  consider  what  kind  of  manners 
will  produce  the  effect  you  desire,  should  teach  that 
vanity,  by  leading  you  to  make  a  foolish  display  of  learn- 
ing, would  defeat  its  own  end,  so  that  instead  of  admi- 
ration, you  would  excite  disgust.  Perhaps  this  cau- 
tion is  unnecessary,  as  there  are  now  so  many  educated 
females,  that  there  is  little  temptation  for  any  one  to  be 
vain  of  her  learning ;  the  effect  which  Hannah  More  an- 
ticipated as  the  result  of  more  enlarged  systems  of  edu- 
cation is  now  realized.  A  female  possessing  a  cultivated 
mind,  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  prodigy,  and  we  have 
far  less  of  les  bas  bleus  than  formerly.  Slip-shod  feet, 
dirty  caps  and  gowns,  have  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  the 
characteristics  of  a  literary  woman ;  who  is  now  allow- 
ed to  dress  herself  neatly,  after  the  fashion  of  the  day 
24 


278  INTELLECTUAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

and  to  enjoy  the  social  pleasures  of  life  like  others  of  her 
species.  Indeed,  so  far  is  literature,  at  the  present  time, 
from  being  a  reproach  to  a  lady,  so  far  from  lowering  her 
in  the  estimation  of  others,  that  when  displayed  at  proper 
times,  and  in  a  proper  manner,  it  adds  greatly  to  her  in- 
iluence  and  respectability  in  society. 

But  there  is  always  a  degree  of  delicacy  expected  from 
a  lady  in  the  use  of  her  acquirements,  which  should  be 
understood  and  regarded.  The  effect  of  these  acquire- 
ments, as  I  have  often  remarked,  should  be  exhibited  in 
the  general  character  and  deportment,  the  methodical  ar- 
rangement of  time,  richness,  ease,  and  variety  of  conver- 
sation, and  in  short  the  power  of  adapting  one's  self  to  the 
changing  circumstances  of  life,  and  of  fulfilling  its  many 
and  varied  duties.  A  practical  knowledge  of  the  human 
mind  is  peculiarly  important  to  our  sex  ;  it  is  a  knowledge 
which  they  have  ever  been  quick  to  seize  ;  the  great  vol- 
ume of  life,  woman  reads  with  facility  ; — mingling  in  socie- 
ty she  soon  learns  the  art  of  pleasing,  adapts  herself  to  its 
prevailing  taste  and  manners,  or  rather  learns  to  lead  its 
iaste  and  influence  its  manners.  The  French  women  have, 
.at  different  times,  exercised  great  power  over  the  minds 
of  kings  and  statesmen;  they  have  often,  though  behind 
the  scenes,  been  the  real  actors  in  the  drama  of  life, 
while  those  who  fancied .4  themselves  the  actors  were  in 
fact  but  automatons,  moving  in  a  prescribed  circle,  and 
.accomplishing  the  designs  of  those  who  led  them.  But 
how,  in  many  instances,  was  this  influence  acquired,  and 
how  was  it  exerted  1 — Who  aie  among  the  celebrated  wo* 
men,  from  Aspasia  of  Athens,  to  Madam  Pompadour,  of 
France,  that  have  been  distinguished  lor  their  power  over 
the  other  sex  ?  My  pupils,  they  were  those  who  sacrific- 
ed virtue  and  self  respect ;  and  who  sought,  in  the  tri- 
umphs which  announced  their  own  degradation,  to  stifle 
its  remembrance. 

But  these  wanderers  from  the  path  of  true  dignity  and 
of  virtue,  had  not  the  advantages  of  a  consistent  and 
moral  education.  Aspasia,  it  is  true,  lived  in  the  age  of 
Athenian  glory,  and  was  deeply  imbued  with  Grecian 
learning,  but  she  had  not  the  pure  light  of  the  gospel ; 


INTELLECTUAL  PHILOSOPHY. 


279 


and  the  high  rank  which  she  held  among  the  Greek  phi- 
losophers, notwithstanding  the  licentiousness  of  her  con- 
duct, show  us  the  actual  value  of  heathen  morality. 

I  remarked  that  women  are  quick  to  learn  the  opera- 
tions of  the  human  mind,  by  observations  on  society  :  but 
this  does  not  preclude  the  utility  of  well-chosen  books, 
and  of  systematic  instruction  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  ren- 
ders them  more  important,  by  giving  their  knowledge 
and  tact  a  right  direction.  Without  such  aids,  females 
are  too  apt  to  exercise  their  ingenuity  in  petty  attempts 
to  extend  their  empire  over  others,  from  the  mere  influ- 
ence of  external  charms  or  fascinating  manners ;  with 
more  elevated  views,  they  learn  to  value  only  the  influ- 
ence which  is  gained  by  the  charms  of  intellect  and  the 
dignity  of  virtue. 

A  just  and  practical  knowledge  of  the  human  mind  is 
highly  important  to  woman  in  the  several  relations  of  life, 
domestic  and  social ;  more  especially  does  the  mother  and 
the  instructor  of  youth,  need  to  understand  the  avenues 
and  secret  windings  of  the  human  heart,  to  be  able  to 
read  the  thoughts,  and  to  direct  them  into  their  proper 
channel.  Mr.  Stewart  remarks,  '  the  object  of  education 
should  be,  first,  to  cultivate  the  various  faculties  of  our 
nature  ;  second,  to  watch  over  early  impressions  and  asso- 
ciations, to  secure  the  mind  against  the  influence  of 
error,  and  to  lead  its  prepossessions  on  the  side  of  truth.1 
This  science  also  may  have  a  very  important  influence, 
upon  our  own  moral  and  mental  improvement  ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  Stewart,  every  person  on  arriving  to  years  of  re- 
flection, perceives  in  himself  defects  owing  to  some  mis- 
management in  education,  and  knowing  the  laws  of  his 
own  mind,  he  feels  the  necessity  of  beginning  a  course 
for  himself.' 

This  self-education  is,  after  all,  the  great  business  of 
life ;  it  is  in  order  to  enable  the  young  to  discipline  their 
own  minds,  to  detect  the  errors  in  their  own  conduct, 
and  the  latent  evils  in  their  own  hearts,  that  for  so 
many  years  they  are  disciplined  and  taught  by  others. 
The  sooner  this  lesson  of  self-education  is  learned,  the 
sooner  do  the  young  assume  the  dignity  of  rational 
beings,  and  become  fitted  to  be  their  own  guardians.  In 


280  ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 

reading  the  biography  of  eminent  persons,  we  find  that 
they  were  always  strict  in  their  self-requisitions  and 
self-government.  They  observed  themselves  closely, 
and  when  they  found  a  bias  towards  any  particular  fault 
or  weakness,  they  directed  their  efforts  towards  correct- 
ing the  one,  and  strengthening  the  other. 

I  would  again  urge  the  importance  of  keeping  a  diary, 
in  which  the  moral  tenor  of  your  actions  and  the  bent  of 
your  minds  should  be  scrupulously  noted.  This  journal 
should  be  for  your  own  inspection  only  ;  for  such  is  the 
deceitfulness  of  the  human  heart,  that  it  is  very  apt  to 
suggest  a  too  flattering  picture  of  itself,  where  it  is 
made  with  the  design  of  being  seen  by  any  but  the 
original. 

'  Man,  know  thyself,'  is  a  precept  as  important  as  it  is 
difficult  in  practice.  To  assist  us  in  this  duty,  no  science 
is  more  highly  beneficial  than  that  which  has  the  human 
mind  for  its  object,  and  yet  unless  we  add  to  our  philoso- 
phy the  wisdom  of  true  piety,  we  shall  never  fully 
comprehend  the  extent  of  human  depravity,  the  true 
mode  of  purifying  the  heart,  and  rendering  it  meet  for 
an  offering  to  its  Creator. 


LECTURE  XXII. 

Accomplishments. — Music — Dancing — Drawing. 

WE  have  now  completed  our  view  of  the  various 
branches  of  literary  and  scientific  education,  which  con- 
stitute a  course  of  instruction  in  the  institution  of  which 
you  are  members.  We  have  considered  them  all  under  the 
general  head  of  Intellectual  Improvement. 

It  has  been  my  wish  to  give  sketches  of  these  subjects, 
which,  though  neither  perfect  in  outline,  or  minute  in 
particulars,  might,  as  graphic  delineations,  serve  to  fix 
their  leading  features  upon  the  tablets  of  the  mind. 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS.  281 

The  chief  object  in  the  attainment  of  what  are  called 
accomplishments,  ought  to  be  to  soften  and  refine  the 
manners,  and  add  to  the  innocent  and  elegant  enjoy- 
ments of  human  life.  I  shall  not  at  present  dwell  upon 
the  subject  of  female  manners  and  deportment,  except  as 
this  may  be  connected  with  that  of  accomplishments. 

In  some  of  these,  as  music  and  drawing,  the  physical 
and  intellectual  powers,  and  the  emotions  are  all  exercis- 
ed. Dancing  is  to  be  considered  chiefly  in  reference  to 
its  effects  on  the  motions  and  carriage  of  the  body, 
although  as  a  pleasant  and  exhilerating  exercise,  it 
may  be  made  conducive  to  the  promotion  of  cheerfulness 
and  good  humor. 

Female  manners  cannot  be  taught  with  didactic  pre- 
cision, under  any  given  number  of  rules.  There  is 
a  certain  nameless  grace  in  fine  manners,  which  it  is 
impossible  to  describe,  and  which  cannot  be  traced  to 
any  one  source.  They  are  the  result  of  education,  in- 
tercourse with  refined  society,  and  that  general  benevo- 
lence which  wishes  to  please,  not  from  the  impulse  of 
vanity,  but  because  it  finds  its  own  happiness  in  mak- 
ing that  of  others.  The  manners  acquired  at  board- 
ing schools  are  often,  and  not  without  reason,  made  the 
subject  of  severe  remark.  One  writer  says,  *  Boarding 
schools  give  us  artificial  creatures,  made  up  of  artificial 
looks  and  smiles ;  their  airs,  gestures  and  articulation 
are  all  a  compound  of  affectation.  Such  schools  give 
forwardness  to  fruits,  but  deprive  them  of  their  natural 
healthiness  and  flavor,  and  thejine  ladies  they  send  into 
the  world  feel  themselves  ridiculously  exalted  above 
all  sensible  conversation,  or  all  attempts  to  be  useful.' 

Although  the  author  just  quoted  appears  to  have 
indulged  in  too  indiscriminate  a  condemnation  of  all 
boarding  schools,  we  cannot  but  admit  that  he  has 
drawn  a  correct  likeness  of  many  of  the  finished  young 
ladies  of  the  present  day.  To  a  sensible  and  elevated 
mind,  nothing  can  appear  more  ridiculous  and  con- 
temptible than  the  airs  which  are  sometimes  assum- 
ed by  young  ladies  on  leaving  school,  and  making  their 
entree  into  the  world  of  fashion.  The  cause  of  this 
exhibition  of  folly  and  affectation  may  often  be  traced 
24* 


282  ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 

to  early  associations,  acquired  under  the  paternal   roof, 
and  confirmed  by  a  defective  mode  of  education. 

The  inlluence  of  maternal  character  is  strikingly 
manifested  in  the  associations  of  the  child.  A  young 
girl  who  observes  that  show  and  fashion  are  the  chief 
concern  of  her  mother's  life,  very  naturally  acquires 
the  habit  of  regarding  these  things  as  of  the  highest 
importance.  She  learns  that  to  play  and  sing  well,  to 
possess  a  fashionable  air  and  manner  are  to  be  her  pass- 
ports into  the  world  of  fashion,  which  she  believes  is  the 
true  paradise  of  life.  Her  young  bosom  heaves  with 
tumultuous  agitation  at  the  thought  of  that  period  when 
she  shall  be  brought  out  or  become  a  young  lady,  be 
entitled  to  coquette,  to  prattle  nonsense,  and  play  off  the 
airs  which  she  has  learned  to  consider  the  test  of  an 
elite  of  fashion  ; — with  such  prepossessions  she  is  sent 
abroad  to  a  boarding  school,  and  with  the  avowed  object, 
on  the  part  of  the  parents,  that  she  may  become  Jinished, 
or  may,  in  a  degree,  perfect  herself,  in  certain  elegant 
accomplishments.  The  inquiry  on  the  part  of  such 
parents  with  respect  to  the  character  of  a  school,  is  not, 
what  course  of  menta!  discipline  is  there  pursued, 
what  is  the  tone  of  moral  instruction,  or  the  standard  of 
intellectual  attainments  ;  but  what  attention  is  paid; to 
accomplishments,  and  what  are  the  advantages  for  learn- 
ing music,  dancing,  &c. 

What  must  be  expected  from  the  daughters  of  such 
parents,  after  the  completion  of  an  education  in  a  school 
conformable  to  their  own  false  ideas  of  merit?  If  young 
ladies  enter  life  fitted  only  for  its  gay  scenes,  what  is 
to  be  their  future  destiny,  even  in  this  world  ?  So  far 
are  festive  scenes  from  making  up  the  whole  of  life,  that 
even  in  the  most  prosperous  condition  of  human  exist- 
ence, there  is  more  of  sorrow  than  joy,  more  of  mourn- 
ing than  mirth.  It  has  been  observed  by  the  good 
Hannah  More,  that  from  the  course  pursued  by  many 
with  respect  to  the  education  of  their  daughters,  one 
might,  reasoning  a  priori,  be  led  to  infer  that  the  life  of 
women  consisted  of  one  universal  holiday,  and  that  the 
only  contest  was,  who  should  be  best  enabled  to  excel 
in  the  sports  and  games  that  were  to  be  celebrated  in  it. 


MUSIC.  283 

Now  it  is  this  very  idea  of  the  great  importance  of  ac- 
complishments which  causes  so  much  vanity  and  affecta- 
tion among  females.  Did  they,  for  instance,  regard 
music  merely  as  an  agreeable  and  refined  amusement, 
which  would  enable  them  to  add  something  to  the  enjoy- 
ments of  their  friends,  as  well  as  afford  pleasure  to 
themselves,  we  should  not  see  so  much  parade  and  flut- 
tering when  a  young  lady  is  requested  to  sing  or  play 
in  company.  The  very  idea  that  her  performance  is  a 
matter  of  great  moment,  the  expectation  of  the  admira- 
tion she  shall  receive,  or  the  fear  of  mortification,  all 
serve  to  render  her  manner  constrained  and  unnatural ; 
add  to  this,  a  habit  of  affectation  already  acquired,  and 
we  have  the  picture  of  many  a  young  lady  exhibiting  her- 
self to  the  pain  and  mortification  of  all  sensible  and  truly 
elevated  people. 

Let  music,  and  other  elegant  accomplishments,  take 
their  proper  rank ;  they  are  pleasant,  as  interludes  [in 
the  great  drama  of  life's  duties.  If  an  actor  in  an 
inferior  part  should  fancy  himself  the  hero,  and  snuff 
the  candles  or  perform  any  other  trifling  service  as 
though  it  were  an  affair  of  the  first  importance,  the  be- 
holders would  consider  it  ludicrous ;  so  to  a  reflecting 
mind  appears  the  manner  of  those  who  seem  to  think 
the  singing  of  a  song,  or  playing  an  air  on  the  harp  or 
piano  an  occasion  of  the  deepest  interest.  A  long  pre- 
lude of  hesitation,  apologies  and  denials,  must  prepare 
the  minds  of  the  company  for  the  great  event ;  and  in 
many  cases  the  result  of  this  preparation,  is  the  inter- 
ruption of  all  sensible  conversation  for  a  very  indifferent 
or  affected  performance. 

A  young  lady's  appearance  in  conversation,  is  far 
more  important,  as  developing  her  intellectual  attain- 
ments, than  any  musical  performance  can  be,  and  yet 
few  would  refuse  to  enter  into  conversation,  through 
consternation  at  the  idea  that  they  might  not  be  admired 
if  they  did  speak.  We  do  not  expect  the  dumb  to  speak, 
neither  can  a  lady  ignorant  of  music  perform  for  the 
gratification  of  her  friends ;  but  one  who  possesses  this 
accomplishment,  should  no  more  refuse  to  exercise  it  at 
proper  times,  than  another  who  can  speak  should  refuse  to 


284  MUSIC. 

enter  into  conversation.  The  great  point  is  to  have  just 
and  enlarged  ideas  of  the  real  importance  of  actions  and 
things,  that  we  may  not  attach  undue  importance  to  tri- 
fles. If  a  young  lady  who  is  known  to  have  some  skill 
in  music,  after  modestly  stating  her  own  deliciences, 
performs  but  indifferently,  she  has  at  least  shown  an 
amiable,  obliging  disposition  in  complying  with  the 
wishes  of  others,  and  in  many  cases  such  instances  have 
made  lasting  impressions  favorable  to  the  character  of  a 
person.  If  another  young  lady  shows  herself  off  with  an 
air  of  vanity  and  self-satisfaction,  however  fine  or  scien- 
tific her  performance,  she  has  left  no  pleasant  remem- 
brances of  herself  in  the  minds  of  the  beholders.  And 
even  without  any  disqualifying  circumstances,  of  what 
use  are  the  first  musical  talents  as  respects  the  great  bu- 
siness of  life,  or  as  the  foundation  of  a  character  ?  The 
stage  probably  affords  finer  specimens  of  musical  talent 
than  any  private  circles,  and  yet  how  wretched  and  de- 
praved have  been  some  of  the  most  distinguished  of  its 
votaries !  at  the  best,  how  low  is  their  station  in  society, 
and  how  little  do  they  contribute  to  the  real  well-be- 
ing of  mankind  ! 

A  French  lady  of  distinguished  talents,  elegant  man- 
ners, and  the  instructer  of  queens  and  princesses,*  in 
remarking  upon  female  character  and  the  influence  of 
mothers  upon  the  associated  feelings  and  the  principles 
of  their  daughters,  says,  '  Honored  be  the  mother,  who, 
in  bringing  up  her  daughter,  is  not  actuated  by  the  sole 
desire  of  rendering  her  fascinating ;  who  secures  to  her  a 
durable  good  in  the  cultivation  of  her  judgment,  arid  in 
the  enlightening  of  her  rnind;  who  accustoms  her  to  pi  e- 
fer  duty  to  pleasure,  knowledge  to  amusement ;  who 
teaches  her  to  be  learned  without  pedantry,  and  graceful 
without  affectation.  Then  will  this  daughter  be  wise 
without  vanity,  happy  without  witnesses,  and  contented 
without  admirers.' 

As  an  elegant  accomplishment,  and  a  resource  against 
adversity,  music  may  well  be  considered  a  desirable 
branch  of  education,  if  circumstances  permit  its  attain- 

*  Madame  Campan. 


MUSIC.  "285 

raent.  This  science  may  also  be  cultivated  without  any 
detriment  to  mental  improvement,  since,  during  the  time 
devoted  to  it,  the  mind  is  agreeably  relaxed,  and  the 
physical  powers  are  called  into  action.  One  or  two 
hours  each  day,  devoted  to  practice  on  any  instrument 
of  music,  besides  the  usual  time  spent  in  receiving  les- 
sons, will,  if  faithfully  improved,  soon  produce  a  manifest 
improvement ;  if  this  course  is  pursued  with  persevering 
industry,  for  some  length  of  time,  a  young  lady  may  per- 
form upon  the  piano  or  harp  with  skill  and  execution. 

But  I  cannot  avoid  considering  that  parent  or  instruct- 
er  as  deeply  guilty,  who  urges  a  child  to  spend  the  greater 
part  of  a  day  in  thrumming  upon  an  instrument,  leaving 
the  mind  to  grow  rank  with  the  weeds  which  will  spring 
up  where  the  intellectual  powers  are  not  cultivated,  and 
suffering  an  immortal  being  to  grow  up  to  maturity  with- 
out that  mental  and  moral  culture,  which  are  so  impor- 
tant both  for  this  world  and  for  eternity.  What  can  we 
think  of  that  father,  who  compelled  a  daughter  for  seve- 
ral years  to  practise  twelve  hours  a  day  upon  the  piano, 
and  occasionally  stood  over  her  with  a  whip,  to  urge  her 
efforts.  The  young  lady  indeed  became  a  great  proficient 
in  music ;  she  appeared  with  eclat  at  public  places,  and 
was  the  seven  days  wonder  of  the  fashionable  world. 
But  she  failed  to  make  that  splendid  connexion  in  life 
for  which  it  was  supposed  the  father  designed  for  her ; 
for,  though  flattered  and  caressed  by  many,  it  did  not  ap- 
pear that  any  gentleman  of  fortune  thought  that  the 
highest  perfection  in  music,  was  sufficient  in  a  wife  to 
atone  for  the  want  of  more  common  though  more  neces- 
sary qualifications.* 

You  will  not  understand  me  as  depreciating  music,  or 
encouraging  its  neglect.  Those  who  possess  a  native 
talent  for  this  delightful  art,  and  whose  circumstances 
render  its  cultivation  proper,  should,  as  I  before  remark- 
ed, improve  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  it.  When  com- 
menced, music  should  be  assiduously  pursued  ;  it  requires 
much  patience  and  practice,  to  become  even  a  tolerable 

*  The  case  here  mentioned  is  one  of  real  life,  and  which  oc- 
curred in  our  own  country. 


286  MUSIC. 

proficient.  A  pupil  should  not  only  endeavor  to  acquire 
skill  and  taste  in  execution,  but  to  understand  the  science 
and  to  comprehend  the  principles  on  which  it  is  founded. 
It  is  important  that  those  who  are  to  learn  music  should 
commence  the  study  while  young ;  at  this  time  the  fingers 
are  pliant,  and  can  easily  accommodate  themselves  to  ex- 
ercises which  are  found  very  difficult  by  older  persons.  At 
a  period,  too,  when  the  faculties  of  the  understanding 
are  but  partially  developed,  there  is  not  that  necessity  for 
the  full  appropriation  of  time  in  study,  which  is  after- 
wards required  in  the  pursuit  of  the  different  branches  of 
education. 

Madame  Campan  well  remarks,  that  '  the  many  hours 
which  a  young  girl  devotes  to  the  instrument  would  be 
much  regretted,  if  they  did  not  procure  her  a  genuine 
talent  for  life.  We  hear  it  often  remarked,  that  a  young 
person  as  soon  as  she  is  married,  shuts  her  piano,  which 
becomes  merely  a  useless  piece  of  furniture  :  this  is  true, 
when  it  recals  only  the  melancholy  recollection  of  a  cul- 
ture without  fruit.  If  by  means  of  repeated  lessons, 
chid  ings  and  tears,  she  is  able  to  play  some  sonatas 
which  have  never  contributed  to  her  pleasure,  nor  that 
of  others,  is  it  not  very  natural  that  she  should  free  her- 
self from  this  restraint,  as  soon  as  she  can  follow  her  own 
inclination  T  But  if  a  lady  can  read  music,  and  has  en- 
tered with  any  degree  of  enthusiasm  into  the  delights 
which  it  affords,  she  will  never  be  likely  wholly  to  aban- 
don an  exercise  in  which  all  the  emotions  find  an  answer- 
ing expression. 

In  joy  and  sorrow,  hope  and  despondency,  the  swell- 
ing heart  may  find  vent  in  sprightly  or  melancholy 
strains  of  music.  I  recollect  an  elderly  and  very  amia- 
ble foreigner,  whose  cara  sposa  was  not  of  the  sweet- 
est temper  imaginable,  who  always  resorted  to  the  pia- 
no, after  a  storm  of  female  vengeance  had  burst  upon 
his  head.  This  instrument  seemed  as  a  faithful  friend 
which  gave  out  no  other  tones  but  such  as  were  re- 
spondent to  his  own  feelings.  And  since  females,  though 
sometimes  the  aggressors,  are  more  frequently  the 
aggrieved  party  in  domestic  discords,  music  might  be 
improved  by  them  to  a  similar  purpose.  Indeed,  music 


MUSIC.  287 

if  cultivated  and  practised  by  a  married  lady  with  the 
view  to  her  amusement  and  improvement,  must  have  a 
tendency,  not  only  to  console  her  in  trouble,  but  to  soften 
and  elevate  the  tone  of  her  mind,  and  to  smooth  the  as- 
perities of  her  own  temper. 

Vocal  music  is  far  from  being  the  artificial  thing  which 
amateurs  of  the  present  day  would  represent  it.  The 
birds  have  no  Italian  masters,  and  yet  even  the  trills  oi  the 
most  scientific  performers  are  far  inferior  to  some  of  theirs. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  introduce  vocal  music  into  common 
schools,  as  one  of  the  ordinary  exercises.  A  gentleman 
who  has  travelled  much  in  Europe,*  states  that  in  Germa- 
ny and  Switzerland,  music  both  in  theory  and  practice  is 
regularly  taught  as  an  important  branch  in  the  national 
system  of  education.  He  says  that  a  distinguished  pro- 
fessor of  the  island  of  Sicily  on  hearing  of  the  unhappy 
influence  of  study  upon  the  health  of  our  literary  men, 
asked,  '  What  are  the  amusements  of  your  literary  men  V 
When  answered  none, — the  professor  said  *  No  wonder 
they  are  sick,  and  die  of  study,' — observing  that  he  spent 
a  stated  portion  of  the  day  in  recreations,  of  which  in- 
strumental and  vocal  music  were  an  essential  part,  and 
that  he  thought  he  could  not  live  without  the  relief  which 
they  gave  his  mind. 

While  speaking  on  the  subject  of  vocal  music,  I  can- 
not but  deprecate  the  improper  character  of  most  of 
the  popular  songs  of  the  day.  Young  ladies  are  oft- 
en heard  to  express  in  singing,  sentiments  that  they 
would  blush  to  utter  in  conversation;  or,  if  there  is 
nothing  absolutely  wrong  in  the  thought,  the  words 
set  to  fashionable  music  are  usually  without  sentiment  or 
moral.  The  beautiful  and  chaste  songs  of  Mrs.  Hemans 
are  a  noble  exception  ;  everything  that  comes  from  her 
pen  is  pure,  and  bears  the  image  and  superscription  of 
an  elevated  and  chastened  mind.  The  plaintive  and 
thrilling  air  of  her  *  Bring  Flowers,'  the  spirit  stirring 
4  Pilgrim  Fathers,'  and  the  wail  of  the  '  Captive 
Knight,'  are  only  equalled  by  some  of  the  noble  efforts 
of  Heber. 

*  Rev,  W.  C.  Woodbridge. 


288  MUSIC. 

Has  America  no  Hemans,  who  will  awaken  a  sleeping 
lyre  in  behalf  of  her  young  sisters,  to  give  them  songs, 
which,  insiead  of  soiling  the  purity  of  their  yet  unpollu- 
ted hearts,  may  enlist  their  associations  and  affections 
in  the  cause  of  virtue  ?  Have  we  no  Heber,  whose 
lips,  touched  with  hallowed  fire,  may  warble  forth 
strains  which  shall  waft  the  spirit  above  the  mist  and 
darkness  of  earth-born  passions,  and  teach  it  to  soar  in 
the  regions  of  a  pure  love  and  holy  devotion  ?  Alas, 
fashion's  seal  must  first  be  set  upon  the  noblest  and 
purest  efforts  of  human  genius,  before  it  can  gain  access 
to  the  temples  where  she  is  worshipped ; — arid  we  are  led 
to  wonder  that  she  has  even  deigned  to  accept  offerings 
as  pure  and  holy  as  those  which  have  emanated  from  the 
spirits  of  Mrs.  Hemans  and  Bishop  Heber. 

To  her  whose  heart  beats  high  with  the  hope  of  admi- 
ration in  the  circles  of  fashion,  and  who  has  no  object 
beyond  that  of  receiving  this  admiration,  to  the  gay  and 
thoughtless  girl  who  counts  each  day  a  weariness  till  she 
shall  be  released  from  intellectual  labor,  from  regularity 
in  duty  and  in  conduct,  who  feels  that  she  is  about  to 
realize  in  coming  scenes  of  amusement,  those  visions 
of  earthly  bliss  which  had  been  impressed  upon  her 
almost  infant  mind, — to  such  an  one  it  would  be  use- 
less to  say,  Let  not  fashion,  let  not  the  popular  taste  se- 
duce you  from  the  straight  and  narrow  path  of  female  del- 
icacy and  prosperity.  Alas !  such  warnings  are  vain, 
such  admonitions  are  powerless,  where  the  heart's  af- 
fections are  already,  in  imagination,  poured  out  at  the 
shrine  of  fashion,  that  destroyer  of  woman's  purity  of 
heart,  arid  simplicity  of  taste  and  of  character. 

But,  suffer  me  to  hope,  that  few  of  you  will  thus  leave 
these  retreats,  where  female  virtues  have  been  assiduous- 
ly cultivated,  where  female  influence  has  been  so  often  ex- 
plained, where  female  duties  have  been  enforced,  and  the 
female  mind  has  risen  to  new  light  and  life  ! — Suffer  me 
to  hope,  that  not  one  of  you  after  all  this,  will  leave  this 
sanctuary  to  go  forth  into  the  world,  thoughtless  as  the 
giddy  insect,  which  rushes  into  the  consuming  flame.  It 
is  your  duty  and  your  right,  to  take  upon  the  stage  of 
life  a  standing,  dignified  as  your  rank,  fortune,  talenti 


MUSIC.  289 

and  accomplishments,  entitle  you  to,  but  forbear  to  lend 
your  countenance  to  folly  or  vice,  however  elegant  or 
fascinating  they  may  appear. 

My  remarks  on  the  study  of  music  have  been  some- 
what desultory ;  and  suggestions  connected  with  the 
subject  have  drawn  me  aside  from  some  remarks  which 
I  would  make  before  leaving  this  topic. 

Before  commencing  this  branch  of  education,  re- 
flect whether  you  have  a  natural  taste  for  it,  and 
whether  this  accomplishment  is  correspondent  to  your 
means  and  condition.  If  in  your  own  judgment  and 
that  of  your  friends  all  these  things  are  considered  favor- 
ble,  commence  music  with  the  resolution  of  becoming 
a  proficient  in  it.  Consider  it  as  a  means  of  improving 
your  taste,  and  giving  refinement  and  delicacy  to  your 
emotions.  As  a  science  it  has  its  intellectual  depart- 
ment ;  it  assists  in  the  perfection  of  the  physical  organs, 
particularly  in  educating  the  ear  to  a  nice  discrimination 
of  sounds,  and  may  do  much  towards  forming  a  correct 
habit  of  reading. 

It  will  be  a  resource  in  adversity,  will  enable  you  to 
enliven  domestic  scenes ;  and  should  you  be  mothers,  it' 
will  render  you  capable  of  instructing  your  children,  or 
at  least  of  knowing  when  they  are  well  instructed. 
The  highest  and  noblest  object  of  music  is  to  employ  it 
in  the  service  and  to  the  praise  of  our  Maker.  The 
blessed  in  heaven  are  represented  as  singing  to  golden 
harps  the  glories  of  redeeming  love.  It  is  melancholy 
to  behold  a  person  highly  gifted  with  musical  talents, 
who  has  never  learned  to  employ  them  in  praise  to  Him 
from  whom  man  receives  all  his  faculties. 

I  am  sensible  that  as  yet  I  have  scarcely  touched  upon 
the  main  spring,  which,  among  many,  causes  a  devoted 
attention  to  music;  I  allude  to  the  anticipated  power  of 
dazzling  by  the  display  of  an  elegant  accomplishment, 
the  hope  of  being  the  centre  of  a  fashionable  circle  ; — 
but  on  this  point  I  shall  not  now  dwell.  It  is  too  pain- 
ful to  anticipate  the  evils  which  result  from  these  hopes 
and  expectations,  so  often  the  ruin  of  females,  or  of  all 
that  is  truly  estimable  in  the  female  character. 
25 


290  DANCING. 

Permit  me  to  hope  that  those  of  you  whose  intellectual 
powers  are  strengthened  by  discipline,  whose  minds  are 
stored  with  a  rich  variety  of  knowledge  and  whose 
morals  are  elevated  by  reflection  and  study,  and  espe- 
cially those  who  are  influenced  by  religious  considera- 
tion, may  be  able  to  repress  an  inordinate  love  of  admi- 
ration, and  to  enjoy  the  possession  of  elegant  accom- 
plishments, unaccompanied  by  that  restless  vanity  which 
finds  happiness  only  in  display. 

Dancing. 

Madame  Campan,  whose  judicious  opinions  I  have 
pleasure  in  repeating,  observes :  '  Accomplishments 
should  not  fgrm  the  basis  of  the  education  of  girls,  but 
the  first  lessons  in  dancing  and  the  piano  should  be 
given  at  about  the  age  of  seven  years.  Youthful  limbs 
can  place  themselves  more  easily  according  to  rules, 
which  add  to  the  graceful  embellishments,  and  render 
them  so  natural  that  the  fruit  of  lessons  can  be  no 
longer  distinguished;  it  is  also  very  certain  that  the 
physical  developement  and  health  of  children  gain 
much,  where  they  contract  in  good  time  the  habit  of 
holding  themselves  up,  and  walking  gracefully/  I  am 
aware  that  dancing  in  many  cases  receives  too  great  a 
share  of  attention,  and  what  is  still  worse  that  it  some- 
times creates  and  fosters  vanity  and  a  love  of  admiration 
in  the  youthful  heart ;  but  this  is  not  the  only  thing 
innocent  in  itself,  which  may  be  abused  and  perverted. 
Language  is  often  made  an  instrument  of  evil :  religion 
itself  may  be  used  as  a  cloak  for  hypocrisy,  but  we  would 
not  that  either  language  or  religion  should  be  condemn- 
ed because  they  may  be  thus  perverted. 

As  a  healthful  exercise,  dancing  is  recommended  by 
most  physicians.  Dr.  Warren,  in  his  lecture  delivered  at 
Boston,  in  1830,  before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, remarks  that  *  next  to  walking  in  the  open  air,  the 
best  exercise  for  a  young  female  is  dancing.  This 
brings  into  action  a  large  part  of  the  muscles  of  the 
body  and  lower  limbs,  and  gives  them  grace  and  power/ 


DANCING.  291 

To  those  who  are  engaged  in  study  during  a  large  part 
of  the  day,  some  exercise  of  this  nature  seems  absolutely 
necessary,  especially  in  winter,  when  the  weather  con- 
fines females  within  doors. 

It  is  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  improv- 
ing the  external  deportment  and  carriage  of  our  pupils, 
that  dancing  is  here  taught  and  practised.  But  you  are 
well  aware  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between  young 
ladies  receiving  lessons  at  the  seminary  and  practising 
wholly  by  themselves,  or  going  to  a  public  hall  where 
young  persons  of  both  sexes  mingle  promiscuously,  and 
attending  at  publics,  or  quarterly  exhibitions.  There  are 
certainly  evils  attendant  on  such  a  course,  which  more 
than  balance  ail  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
learning  to  dance — girls  and  boys  associating  before  they 
consider  themselves  as  ladies  and  gentlemen,  either 
acquire  a  familiarity  of  address  which  in  after  life  will 
be  improper  and  disgusting,  or  begin  to  practise  the  arts 
of  coquetry,  which,  ridiculous  as  they  are  at  any  period, 
appear  still  more  so  where  we  look  for  the  honest  sim- 
plicity of  childhood. 

It  is  this  improper  manner  of  practising  dancing,  and 
the  subsequent  dissipation  of  after  years,  which  has  pre- 
judiced so  many  good  people  against  an  exercise  which 
nature  prompts,  and  which  the  Author  of  nature  has 
never  prohibited.  Even  the  battle-horse  is  moved  by  the 
sound  of  martial  music,  and  treads  proudly  to  its  mea- 
sures. And  who  that  sees  a  child,  or  a  young  female 
moving  in  harmony  with  sprightly  music,  can  look 
moodily  upon  the  sight  as  though  it  were  a  sin  against 
Him  who  adapts  the  ear  to  the  nice  perception  of  sound, 
makes  the  heart  to  answer  in  correspondent  emotions, 
and  gives  to  the  muscular  frame  the  power  to  express  by 
motion,  the  character  of  these  sounds?  That  in  itself 
dancing  is  not  offensive  in  the  sight  of  Heaven,  we  may 
gather  from  the  tenor  of  the  scriptures.  Among  the 
pious  of  old  we  read  of  dancing  as  an  expression  of 
cheerfulness.  David,  in  the  overflowing  joy  of  his  heart, 
danced  before  the  ark  of  God.  Jeptha's  daughter,  a 
maiden  of  purity  and  innocence,  went  out  with  music 
and  dancing  to  meet  her  father  returning  from  battle. 


292  DANCING. 

Our  Saviour  himself  in  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son, 
in  which  the  father  is  considered  an  allegorical  repre- 
sentative of  Him  to  whom  we  have  every  day  need  to 
say,  *  Father  I  have  sinned  against  thee; — our  Saviour 
represents  this  father  as  having  in  his  house  music  and 
dancing  on  the  occasion  of  the  penitent's  return. 

While  I  would  rescue  this  exercise  from  the  reproach 
which  I  think  has  been  improperly  attached  to  it,  I 
would  condemn  in  the  most  decided  manner  those 
evils  which  have  been  suffered  to  connect  themselves 
with  it.  Some  of  them  I  have  already  mentioned  in  re- 
marking upon  promiscuous  dancing-schools  and  public 
balls.  I  would  observe  that  another  evil  connected  with 
these,  is  the  fondness  for  dress  and  display  which  they 
usually  produce.  Mothers,  when  their  little  darlings 
are  old  enough  to  go  to  a  dancing  school,  are  too  apt  to 
think  they  must  appear  very  fine;  their  own  boxes  of 
jewelry  are  searched  for  ornaments,  their  watches  di- 
vested of  chains  for  the  pretty  necks  of  these  miniature 
belles ;  or,  if  circumstances  permit,  new  ornaments  are 
purchased ;  dresses  are  made  which  vie  with  the  gossa- 
mer in  lightness  of  texture,  and  this  mimic  representa- 
tion of  a  French  doll  is  sent  forth  thus  bedizened  to  at- 
tract the  envy  of  her  companions,  and  to  imbibe  the 
moral  poison  which  will  hereafter  appear  in  her  devotion 
to  dress  and  her  thirst  for  admiration.  I  could  point 
out  instances  of  females,  whom  nature  has  highly  favored 
with  beauty  of  person,  talents,  and  most  amiable  dispo- 
sitions ;  but  yet  the  whole  beautiful  fabric  has  been  de- 
formed by  this  one  taint,  which,  taking  deep  hold  in 
childhood,  no  after  exertions  could  remove; — like  the 
blood  of  the  murdered  which  superstition  believes 
leaves  an  indelible  mark  on  the  murderer's  hand,  vanity, 
when  it  has  once  deeply  stained  a  female  bosom,  can 
never  be  washed  away.  But  I  am  wrong — there  is  3 
fount  in  which  sins  may  be  cleansed,  and  there  are 
borne  penitent  Marys  who, 

1  O'er  the  faults  of  former  years 
Have  wept,  and  are  forgiven/ 


DRAWING.  293 


Drawing. 

Drawing  is  the  art  of  representing  by  means  of  lines 
upon  a.  flat  surface,  the  forms  of  objects  and  their  relative 
situation.  This  accomplishment,  so  conducive  to  refine- 
ment of  mind,  is  at  once  useful  and  ornamental,  Every 
gradation  in  the  art  is  pleasing,  from  the  sketch  of  a  sim- 
ple flower  to  the  grandest  historical  design. 

All  the  arts  which  tend  to  the  embellishment  or  com- 
fort of  civilized  life  depend  essentially  on  drawing. 

Painting  has  for  its  basis  the  art  of  drawing  ;  how  much 
then  do  they  err  who  attempt  to  teach  it  to  those  who 
have  not  attended  to  the  principles  on  which  drawing 
depends,  A  few  years  since,  it  was  not  uncommon  for 
pupils  in  female  academies  and  boarding  schools  to  use 
colors  as  soon  as  they  began  to  draw ;  or  at  the  most  a 
few  sketches  of  flowers  or  landscapes,  made  without  rules 
or  principles  were  required. 

In  no  ait  or  science  perhaps  is  genius  more  necessary 
than  in  drawing.  But  genius  to  be  successful  must  be 
assisted  by  rules  of  art,  and  especially  by  a  close  observa- 
tion of  nature,  a  resemblance  to  which  is  the  foundation 
of  all  our  admiration  for  the  fine  arts. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  Geometry  is  very 
important  for  the  pupil  in  drawing.  The  custom  of  draw- 
ing geometrical  figures,  and  maps  in  the  geography  and 
history  classes,  besides  its  importance  in  these  studies,  is 
a,  useful  exercise  in  drawing,  as  much  as  if  this  were  the 
ultimate  object  in  view. 

Drawing  is  an  art  in  the  attainment  of  which  great  in* 
dustry  and  perseverance  are  necessary.  The  pupil 
should  commence  with  perpendicular  and  horizontal  lines 
(which  are  by  no  means  as  easily  made  as  some  may  im- 
agine) and  proceed  to  curves,  circles,  ovals,  cones,  cylin- 
ders and  squares. 

After  practising  until  these  various  figures  may  be  easi* 
ly  made  ;  parts  of  buildings,  as  arches,  columns,  doors 
and  windows  may  be  next  attempted.  Flowers  and  fruit 
are  drawn  much  more  easily  than  figures  which  require 
accuracy  in  horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines.  Trees 
25* 


294  DRAWING. 

require  much  study  ;  the  various  forms  of  foliage,  the  di- 
rection of  the  branches  as  pendant,  erect  or  horizontal, 
the  nature  of  the  bark  and  the  characters  of  the  trunk, 
should  all  be  studied  from  nature.  Good  copies  are  of 
great  use,  but  every  pupil  of  taste  and  genius  will  be  led 
to  the  observation  of  natural  objects. 

It  is  indeed  one  of  the  great  recommendations  of  the 
study  of  drawing  that  it  gives  a  new  interest  to  the  visible 
creation,  and  awakens  in  the  mind  new  sources  of  enjoy- 
ment. The  simple  wild  flower,  the  decayed  tree,  the  ruin- 
ed building  and  the  wild  cascade,  all  present  to  the  artist 
objects  which  please  in  contemplation,  and  which  he  de- 
lights to  copy.  The  various  forms  and  tints  which  are 
reflected  to  the  eye  from  clouds,  from  the  sky  at  sun-rise, 
or  the  pensive  evening  twilight,  all  are  poetry  and  beau- 
ty to  the  soul  of  the  painter.  He  regards  with  attention 
and  admiration  the  pure  blue  sky  of  the  zenith,  as  it  con- 
trasts with  the  darker  hue  of  the  hoizon,  variously  affect- 
ed by  the  situation  of  the  sun  and  the  reflection  of  its 
rays  upon  the  vapors  which  float  near  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  appearing  red,  violet  or  rose  colored. 

The  imitator  of  nature  beholding  the  distant  moun- 
tains in  their  faint,  blue  outlines,  might  in  the  words  of  a 
kindred  spirit,  exclaim, 

'  Why  do  those  cliffs  of  shadowy  tint  appear 
More  sweet  than  all  the  landscape  smiling  near  ? 
'Tis  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view, 
And  robes  the  mountain  in  its  azure  hue.' 

And,  if  a  moralist,  he  might  add, 

*  Thus  with  delight  we  linger  to  survey 
The  promis'd  joys  of  life's  unmeasured  way; 
Thus  from  afar,  each  dim  discovered  scene 
More  pleasing  seems  than  all  the  past  hath  been.' 

Objects  which  to  others  imy  be  disagreeable,  give  rise 
to  the  finest  productions  of  the  artist.  Wherever  the 
marks  of  time  appear,4ie  seems  delighted  to  seize  upon 
and  immortalize  the  ruins  ; — the  decayed  cottage  with  its 
sides  and  roof  covered  with  moss,  the  dilapidated  church, 
or  castle,  afford  more  picturesque  objects  for  the  pen- 
cil than  the  neat  farm  house,  or  the  modern  edifice. 


DRAWING.  295 

Thus  a  rustic  in  ragged  garments,  mounted  upon  an  old 
and  lean  horse,  is  more  picturesque  and  affords  opportuni- 
ty for  a  more  graphic  delineation,  than  a  well-dressed  man 
upon  a  sleek  looking  poney. 

.  In  drawing  from  copies,  a  rule  and  compass  should  not 
be  used,  except  in  measuring  buildings. 

To  the  beginner  it  is  useful  to  draw  lines  across  the 
copy  and  the  paper  on  which  the  delineation  is  to  be  made, 
marking  them  both  into  an  equal  number  of  squares  ;  thus 
the  objects  in  the  squares  on  the  copy  may  be  easily  and 
correctly  transferred.  Threads,  instead  of  lines,  stretched 
across  are  equally  useful  to  the  learner  and  less  injurious 
to  the  pictures, 

In  drawing  a  landscape  from  nature  it  is  well  to  select 
a  gentle  elevation  with  a  large  circumference  of  horizon. 
The  scene  to  be  copied  may  then,  in  imagination,  be  di- 
vided by  certain  perpendicular  lines,  these  by  being 
marked  on  the  paper  and  intersected  by  what  is  termed 
the  horizontal  line,  have  the  same  effect  in  measuring 
distances  as  the  squares  in  the  method  just  described. 

There  can  be  but  one  point  of  sight  in  drawing  a  land- 
scape, or  but  one  spot  at  which  the  eye  of  the  spectator 
is  supposed  to  be  fixed,  from  which,  as  from  a  point,  all 
the  objects  must  be  comprehended. 

Sixty  degrees  of  the  horizon  is  considered  as  being  the 
angle  of  vision  ;  that  is,  considering  the  eye  as  the  centre 
of  a  circle  arid  the  horizon  its  circumference.  Now  you 
will  perceive  that  the  objects  nearest  the  eye  or  on  the 
foreground  of  the  picture  must  occupy  much  greater 
space  upon  the  picture  than  distant  objects  ;  of  course, 
we  can  represent  a  much  greater  number  of  objects  in 
the  distance, 

In  copying  a  flower  from  nature,  it  is  proper  to  begin 
with  the  centre  and  proceed  outwardly  with  the  leaves, 
placing  trrem  one  above  another  in  a  manner  correspond- 
ing to  their  natural  arrangement. 

The  drawing  of  the  human  figure  is  the  most  difficult 
as  well  as  the  highest  department  of  the  art.  It  consti- 
tutes, indeed,  a  distinct  branch,  and  it  is  absurd  for  one 
who  has  painted  a  few  landscapes  or  flowers  to  suppose 
herself  capable  of  execution  in  this  with  accuracy. 


296  DRAWING* 

Few  young  ladies  attend  to  drawing  sufficiently  to  be- 
come proficients  in  the  delineation  of  the  human  figure. 
When  many  years  of  undivided  and  close  attention  are 
required  to  from  a  tolerable  artist,  neither  school  girls  or 
their  teachers  should  be  censured,  if,  after  a  few  months 
practice,  the  former  cannot  rival  Raphael  or  West. 

A  knowledge  of  Geology  is  of  use  to  the  landscape 
painter,  as  it  teaches  the  distinctive  characters  of  rocks, 
and  their  modes  of  stratification,  the  characters  of  moun- 
tains, and  of  the  different  formations  of  the  earth. 

An  acquaintance  with  Botany  is  also  useful  in  flower- 
painting;  without  this  the  pink  might  be  represented 
with  six  stamens,  and  the  lily  with  ten.  A  knowledge  of 
flower  painting  is  also  very  important  to  botanists,  by  en- 
abling them  to  make  sketches  of  the  various  vegetable 
productions. 

Among  the  different  modes  of  painting  is  Oil  painting, 
the  colors  of  which  are  the  most  durable,  and  in  which 
the  shades  may  be  made  to  blend  in  the  most  perfect 
manner. 

Mosaic  painting  consists  of  an  imitation  of  objects  by 
means  of  a  union  of  very  small  pieces  of  marble  of  vari- 
ous colors  fixed  in  stucco,  or  mortar.  If  this  is  well  exe- 
cuted, it  will  remain  to  remote  ages  without  decay.  Fine 
specimens  of  these  composed  of  copies  of  the  great  Ital- 
ian masters,  are  to  be  seen  in  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome. 

Fresco  painting  is  performed  with  colors  diluted  in 
water,  and  laid  on  a  wall  newly  plastered,  with  which 
they  incorporate;  they  are  almost  as  durable  as  the 
mortar  itself. 

Painting  in  water  colors  is  often  called  limning ;  it 
is  performed  with  colors  mixed  with  water.  This  is  the 
kind  of  painting  most  convenient  for  ladies ;  it  can  be 
performed  with  neatness  and  without  the  disagreeable 
smell  which  attends  on  oil  painting;  the  latter  however 
possesses  many  advantages  over  the  former,  and  should  be 
studied  by  all  who  aspire  after  great  eminence  in  the  art. 

Pencil  and  India  ink  shading  appear  neat  and  taste- 
ful, and  considerable  perfection  may  be  attained  in  them 
with  comparatively  little  study. 

Velvet,  Chinese  painting,  &c.  are  methods  by  which 


DRAWING.  297 

handsome  pictures  are  made,  but  they  are  almost  wholly 
mechanical  operations,  and  neither  afford  evidence  of 
genius,  or  have  a  tendency  to  cultivate  the  mental  facul- 
ties. 

Drawing  is  considered  the  elder  sister  of  painting,  as 
it  is  the  younger  of  geometry.  The  attempt  to  imitate 
by  lines  upon  a  flat  surface  the  forms  which  we  see 
in  nature,  is  the  commencement  of  the  art  of  drawing. 

The  Greeks  had  a  tradition  that  drawing  and  sculp- 
ture took  their  rise  by  means  of  a  young  girl's  drawing 
a  shadow  of  her  lover  upon  the  wall,  which  her  father 
cut  out  and  modeled  in  clay.  In  the  early  attempts  at 
drawing,  there  may  be  distinguished  several  periods; 
1.  Objects  were  delineated  by  rude  shapeless  lines; 
for  instance,  an  oval  represented  a  head ;  2.  These 
drawings  were  colored  over  with  black,  or  some  other 
color,  and  the  eyes,  eyebrows,  nose,  mouth,  and  hair, 
were  marked  with  white  upon  the  dark  surface;  3. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  givetanimation  to  pictures  by 
representing  the  different  color  of  the  drapery.  It  was  in 
this  way,  according  to  Homer,  that  Helen  and  An- 
dromache embroidered  tapestry ;  4.  Prominence  and 
relief  to  objects  was  commenced  by  drawing  lines  in 
the  back  ground.  These  attempts  soon  showed  what 
the  power  of  the  art  might  accomplish,  and  we  find  the 
Greeks,  in  the  days  of  their  glory,  pre-eminent  for  their 
perfection  in  drawing  and  sculpture.  The  teacher  of 
the  great  Apelles  required  his  pupils  to  remain  with 
him  ten  years. 

The  Egyptians,  as  appears  by  the  figures  represented 
on  walls  of  ancient  temples  and  catacombs,  appear  to 
have  made  some  progress  in  the  art  of  drawing.  These 
pictures  are  supposed  to  be  hierographical  representa- 
tions of  historical  events,  or  mythological  fictions. 

The  first  of  the  Greeks  whj  contended  for  the  prize 
of  painting  at  the  public  games  at  Corinth  and  Delphi, 
was  Penaenus,  the  cousin  and  pupil  of  Phidias,  a  celebrat- 
ed artist. 

Zeuxis,  and  his  rival  Parrhasius,  about  378  years 
before  Christ,  carried  the  art  to  great  perfection.  The 
latter  is  said  to  have  excelled  in  throwing  into  his 


298  DRAWING. 

paintings  a  striking  expression  of  grace  and  dignity. 
He  became  so  arrogant  on  account  of  his  successes  that 
he  clothed  himself  in  purple,  wore  a  gold  crown  upon 
his  head,  and  pretended  to  be  a  descendant  of  Apollo. 

Apelles  connected  with  a  correct  delineation  of  na- 
ture, a  highly  finished  and  flattering  coloring,  and  was 
considered  as  a  master  of  portrait  painting.  But  the 
fine  arts,  poetry  and  eloquence,  sunk  with  the  liberty  of 
Greece. 

The  Romans  long  remained  indifferent  to  the  art  of 
design,  and  in  the  height  of  their  glory  never  attained  to 
Grecian  perfection  in  any  of  the  fine  arts.  After  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  the  art  of  painting  seemed  to 
revive,  and  most  of  its  finest  productions  for  ages  were 
connected  with  the  Christian  faith.  In  the  fourth  centu- 
ry the  custom  of  placing  the  pictures  of  saints  in  church- 
es extensively  prevailed  both  in  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Empires.  Artists,  stimulated  both  by  genius  and 
religious  zeal,  strove  to  excel  each  other  in  the  execution 
of  their  works. 

In  the  13th  century,  the  art  received  in  Italy  a  new 
impulse  from  the  labors  of  Michael  Angelo,  Corregio, 
Raphael,  Titian,  Leonardi  de  Vinci,  and  several  others 
almost  equally  distinguished. 

The  various  artists  of  Europe  are  considered  as  con- 
stituting schools,  each  of  which  has  its  peculiar  manner 
or  style  of  painting. 

The  Florence  School  is  distinguished  for  greatness, 
severity  and  majesty ;  at  the  head  of  this  was  Michael 
Angelo,  who  delighted  in  being  great  and  terrible,  but 
sought  little  aid  from  grace  or  beauty. 

His  knowledge  of  anatomy  gave  him  great  power  in 
representations  of  the  joints  and  muscles ;  for  which  rea- 
son he  often  made  choice  of  emaciated  figures,  the  monk 
or  hermit,  attenuated  with  the  severity  of  his  vigils  and 
abstinence,  but  with  a  countenance  beaming  high  and 
sublime  thoughts,  were  fit  subjects  for  his  pencil. 

The  Roman  School  had  at  its  head,  Raphael  Sanzio — 
he  was  distinguished  for  his  accuracy  in  copying  nature, 
rather  than  brilliancy  of  imagination.  It  was  observed 
by  a  German  artist,  that  *  if  the  Greeks  sailed  with  maj- 


DRAWING,  299 

esty  between  heaven   and  earth,  Raphael  walked   with 
propriety  on  the  earth.' 

In  the  Venetian  School,  Titian  (whose  real  name  was 
Taziano  Vecelli)  was  conspicuous.  This  school  was 
distinguished  for  skill  in  the  use  of  colors,  for  powerful 
effects,  by  contrasts  of  lights  and  shades.  It  was  confined 
principally  to  oil  paintings,  while  the  Florence  and  Roman 
schools  painted  in  water  colors,  or  fresco. 

The  Lombard  School  was  distinguished  for  grace  and 
softness ;  Antonio  Allegri,  usually  called  Corregio,  was 
the  founder  and  chief  of  this  school. 

The  second  Lombard  School  was  distinguished  for  the 
brothers  called  the  Caracci,  each  of  whom  excelled  in 
particular  departments  of  the  art. 

The  Prench  School  presents  so  many  varieties  of  man- 
ner, that  it  is  difficult  to  ascribe  to  it  any  prevailing  char- 
acteristic. Poussin,  who  is  called  the  Raphael  of  France, 
had  no  pupils,  and  formed  no  school.  His  works  are 
distinguished  by  an  antique  appearance.  Le  Brun  was 
a  painter  of  invention  and  great  power  of  execution.  He 
studied  the  expression  of  the  passions,  and  acquired  much 
skill  in  their  delineation. 

The  German  School,  like  the  French,  consisted  rather 
of  isolated  individual  artists,  than  an  assemblage  whose 
works  were  characterized  by  uniformity  of  manner.  Al- 
bert Durer  was  an  engraver  and  painter.  His  works, 
though  numerous,  were  correct  and  finished,  but  not  re- 
markable  for  taste,  beauty,  or  sublimity.  Holbein  excelled 
in  historical  and  portrait  painting.  One  of  his  pictures, 
the  *  Dance  of  Death/  is  remarkable  for  a  mixture  of 
the  grotesque  and  horrible. 

The  Flemish  School  is  said  to  have  discovered,  or,  at 
least,  first  extensively  practised  oil  painting.  Peter  Paul 
Rubens  was  at  the  head  of  this  school.  He  excelled  equal- 
ly in  fruits  and  flowers,  historical,  portrait,  and  landscape 
painting.  He  seemed  to  possess  the  power  of  embodying, 
with  perfect  ease,  the  sprightly  and  beautiful  conceptions 
of  a  mind  rich  in  fancy  and  glowing  with  the  inspiration 
of  genius. 

The  Dutch  School  is  peculiar  for  the  subjects  which 
occupied  the  attention  of  its  artists.  The  ale-house,  the 


300  DRAWING. 

tavern,  the  mechanic's  shop,  seemed  to  afford  the  scenes 
which  most  delighted  them,  and  called  forth  the  efforts 
of  their  genius.  This  school  is  distinguished  for  correct- 
ness of  perspective,  fine  representations  of  clouds,  sea 
scenes,  animals,  fruits,  flowers  and  insects,  and  excel- 
lence in  everything  which  requires  faithful  imitation,  or 
brilliant  coloring  and  niceness  of  execution. 

Rembrant  Vanryn,  the  son  of  a  miller  of  Leyden,  id 
celebrated  for  his  grotesque  figures  and  low  scenes,  upon 
which  he  devoted  much  study  and  talents,  perhaps  equal 
to  any  of  the  masters  of  antiquity. 

The  English  School  numbers  many  respectable  artists, 
among  whom  are  Vandyke,  a  pupil  of  Rubens.  Lily,  a 
portrait  painter,  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  pictures  of 
females. 

It  has  been  objected  to  him,  that  his  faces  had 
too  much  sameness  of  expression,  a  certain  languishing 
air  and  softness,  and  sweetness,  the  partly  closed  eye, 
which  seemed  to  reveal  tenderness  and  sensibility.  But 
this  might  have  been  more  the  fault  of  the  females, 
than  of  the  painter,  who  probably  wished  to  please  his 
employers. 

Hogarth,  the  son-in-law  of  a  painter,  is  exceeded  by  no 
artist,  in  works  of  humor. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  is  considered  the  founder  of  the 
English  School  of  painting ;  he  united  science  to  art, 
and  did  much  towards  reducing  to  system,  scattered  facts 
and  principles. 

No  artist  in  this  school  is  more  celebrated  than  our 
own  countryman,  Benjamin  West,  who  was,  for  many 
years  previous  to  his  recent  death,  President  of  the  Roy- 
al Academy  of  Design  in  London,  and  acknowledged  as 
the  first  painter  of  his  age. 

American  artists  have  in  general  found  in  their  own 
country  less  encouragement  than  abroad  ;  for  this  reason, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  ancient  works  of  art 
with  which  Europe  is  enriched,  many  spend  their  days 
abroad,  and  add  that  lustre  to  the  arts  in  foreign  coun- 
tries which  is  vainly  regretted  in  their  own. 

The  names  of  Trumbull,  Inman,  and  many  others 
stand  high  in  the  list  of  American  painters. 


DRAWING.  301 

There  are  three  distinct  provinces  in  painting,  such  as 
have  for  their  subjects  man,  the  lower  animals,  and  inan- 
imate nature.  The  first  is  termed  historical  painting, 
and  includes  not  only  subjects  taken  from  history,  but  al- 
legorical representations  and  scenes  from  real  life.  This 
is  the  highest  department  of  the  art,  requiring  in  the  art- 
ist a  lively  conception  of  human  passions  and  their  vari- 
ous external  appearances,  a  knowledge  of  anatomy,  com- 
prehending not  only  the  joints  but  the  muscles  of  the  bo- 
dy, and  the  almost  infinite  variety  of  expression  which 
may  be  produced  by  their  changes.  Thus  by  the  con- 
traction of  two  small  muscles  in  the  upper  lip  arises  a 
look  of  contempt,  while  nearer  the  cheeks  the  expan- 
sion of  two  other  small  muscles  and  the  contraction  of  the 
corresponding  ones  gives  an  expression  of  complacency 
and  condescension.  The  historical  painter  must  not  on- 
ly understand  and  be  able  to  express  the  most  minute 
circumstances  relative  to  the  effect  of  the  different  pas- 
sions upon  the  countenance,  but  is  required  to  delineate 
with  accuracy  the  most  insignificant  member  of  the  bo- 
dy. A  bad  hand  or  a  disproportioned  finger  is  sufficient 
to  mar  the  beauty  of  the  finest  picture.  Especially  must 
the  painter  be  able  to  group  his  figures  in  a  picturesque 
manner,  so  that  the  tout  ensemble  shall  make  a  striking 
and  agreeable  impression.  In  order  to  produce  this  ef- 
fect, he  must  first  have  the  conception  in  his  own  mind. 
Chateaubriand  says,  '  the  universe  is  the  imagination  of 
God  rendered  sensible.'  The  painter,  though  not  pos- 
sessing power  to  bring  into  real  existence  the  images  in 
his  mind,  by  means  of  the  canvass  can  transfer  them  to 
the  minds  of  others.  Hogarth  was  peculiar  for  the  pow- 
er of  retaining  in  his  mind's  eye  the  various  living  scenes 
which  passed  before  him,  preferring  to  copy  from  these 
pictures,  and  taxing  his  memory  with  retaining  them, 
rather  than  the  dry  rules  of  his  art. 

The  painting  of  animals,  although  considered  distinct 
from  landscape  painting,  is  yet  intimately  connected  with 
it,  as  landscapes  are,  in  general,  rendered  more  interest- 
ing by  the  introduction  of  living  beings,  as  cattle  graz- 
ing, or  flocks  reposing.  Landscape  painting  admits  of 
human  figures,  as  seen  at  a  distance ;  but  the  character 
26 


302 


DRAWING. 


of  such  paintings  is  lost  by  giving  to  figures  too  impor- 
tant a  place.  Rocks,  ground,  foliage,  buildings,  sky, 
and  water  allow  to  the  landscape  painter  a  wide  scope  in 
coloring.  Every  true  painter  will  possess  his  own  style 
of  coloring,  as  much  as  every  author  of  genius  his  own 
style  of  writing  ;  and  it  is  as  impossible  for  such  a  paint- 
er to  convey  his  art  to  another,  as  for  the  writer  to  trans- 
fer his  own  power  of  expression. 

Genius  has  never  failed  to  command  respect,  even 
among  the  rudest  people  and  the  most  uncultivated  state 
of  society.  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  a  vain  and  licen- 
tious king,  was  proud  of  patronizing  Hans  Holbein,  a 
distinguished  painter  of  the  German  school.  The  artist 
was  one  day  deeply  engaged  in  finishing  a  work  for  the 
king,  and  being  interrupted  by  the  entrance  of  a  great 
lord  of  the  court,  very  unceremoniously  turned  him  out 
of  his  room.  The  courtier,  on  making  complaint  to  his 
majesty  of  the  impudence  of  the  painter,  received  the 
following  answer :  '  Of  seven  peasants  I  can  make  as 
many  lords,  but  God  only  can  make  a  Hans  Holbein/ 

We  have  already  remarked  that  females  do  not  often 
pay  sufficient  attention  to  the  art  to  excel  in  historical 
painting.  There  are  some  ladies  in  our  country,  who,  by 
their  copies  of  eminent  paintings,  have  discovered  a  high 
degree  of  talent;  and  could  they  have  the  opportunity  of 
travelling  for  improvement,  of  devoting  years  to  the  study 
of  the  first  works,  and  in  the  society  of  distinguished  art- 
ists, their  names  might  hereafter  be  enrolled  among 
those  who  have  gained,  by  the  productions  of  the  pencil, 
a  name  for  future  ages.  But  there  are  many  causes  to 
prevent  females  from  aspiring  to  eminence  in  the  fine 
arts,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  their  physical  con- 
stitutions. Few  possess  the  firmness  of  health  to  endure 
years  of  such  unremitting  labor  as  are  requisite  to  form 
the  artist.  Angelica  Kauffmann  became  celebrated  for 
her  admirable  productions,  even  in  Italy,  the  land  of 
painters.  On  going  to  England  she  received  the  most 
flattering  attentions,  was  invited  to  paint  the  whole  royal 
family,  and  made  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
the  Fine  Arts.  It  was  here  also  that  she  became  the 
victim  of  a  most  cruel  revenge.  An  English  artist  hav- 


DRAWING.  303 

ing  been  rejected  by  Mademoiselle  Kauffman,  selected  a 
dissolute  footman,  of  a  handsome  person  and  insinuating 
address,  whom  he  very  richly  dressed,  and  caused  to  be 
introduced  to  her  as  Count  Horn,  a  nobleman  of  distinc- 
tion. A  foreigner,  and  imperfectly  understanding  the 
language  and  manners  of  the  country,  she  became  the 
dupe  of  this  artifice,  which  was  triumphantly  disclosed 
after  she  had  become  the  wife  of  the  pretended  Count. 
She  easily  obtained  a  divorce,  but  allowed  an  annuity  to 
the  wretch  who  had  lent  himself  to  so  base  a  plot.  She 
died  in  Rome  in  1807,  leaving  a  large  fortune  to  chari- 
table institutions.  Angelica  Kauffman  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  Dr.  Johnson  and  other  distinguished  literary 
men,  as  well  as  the  first  artists  of  the  day,  and  formed 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  ornaments  of  a  coterie  of  ladies, 
with  whom  such  men  were  proud  to  associate.  Among 
these  ladies  was  a  Miss  Moser,  distinguished  for  the 
beauty  and  delicacy  of  her  flower-painting,  and  who  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  These  are  al- 
most solitary  instances  of  females  being  publicly  recog- 
nized as  artists. 

Mrs.  Darner,  an  English  lady  of  high  descent,  of  dis- 
tinguished beauty  and  grace,  with  a  mind  deeply  and 
richly  imbued  with  classic  literature,  and  the  star  of  the 
fashionable  world,  became  suddenly  the  votary  of  the 
fine  arts,  especially  sculpture.  The  following  is  the  ac- 
count given  of  the  trifling  circumstance  which  first  caus- 
ed her  devotion  to  this  art.  When  not  over  twenty  years 
old,  as  she  was  walking  with  the  historian,  David  Hume, 
a  little  Italian  desired  them  to  look  at  some  plaster  fig- 
ures. Mr.  Hume  good-naturedly  examined  and  praised 
them,  giving  the  boy  a  trifle  for  his  encouragement.  His 
fair  companion  afterwards  satirically  related  this  in  com- 
pany, with  an  intimation  that  a  grave  philosopher  might 
better  occupy  his  time  than  in  attention  to  paltry  plaster 
images.  Hume  gravely  replied,  c  those  images,  young 
lady,  were  not  made  without  the  aid  of  both  science  and 
genius — with  all  your  attainments,  you  cannot  produce 
such  works.'  Thus  challenged,  she  privately  procured 
modelling  tools,  and  in  a  few  days  presented  to  her  mon- 
itor a  head  moulded  in  wax.  *  This/  said  he,  c  is  clev- 


304 


DRAWING. 


er.  You  have  found  it  no  easy  task  ;  but  it  is  much  ea- 
sier to  model  in  wax  than  carve  in  marble.5  With  a  re- 
solution which  always  attends  those  who  make  great  at- 
tainments, she  procured  marble  and  proper  tools,  and 
with  great  ingenuity  copied  the  bust  which  she  had  made 
in  wax.  Soon  after  this,  the  public  learned  with  aston- 
ishment that  the  only  and  beautiful  daughter  of  Marshal 
Conway  had  forsaken  the  circles  of  fashion,  banished 
from  her  rnind  all  pretensions  on  the  score  of  high  birth, 
and  was  resolutely  seeking  to  distinguish  herself  by  what 
she  felt  to  be  the  only  true  nobility,  works  of  genius. 
She  was  now  to  be  seen  in  a  close  cap,  to  keep  the  dust 
from  her  hair,  and  a  long  apron  to  preserve  her  damask 
gown  and  satin  slippers,  working  in  wet  clay,  or  with  an 
iron  hammer  in  one  hand  and  a  steel  chisel  in  the  other, 
cunningly  carving  heads  in  marble.  Although  we  can- 
not but  admire  the  energy  and  enthusiasm  of  this  un- 
common female,  we  still  feel  that  she  had  stepped  out  of 
the  legitimate  province  of  woman  ;  and  that  it  was  so, 
appears  from  the  fact,  that  with  all  her  efforts  and  perse- 
verance, she  did  not  attain  the  rank  even  of  a  second-rate 
artist.  Had  the  same  talents  and  industry  been  employ- 
ed in  some  manner  more  suitable  to  the  delicacy  of  her 
frame,  and  the  duties  of  her  station,  how  much  might 
she  have  benefited  and  improved  the  world. 

We  have  now,  my  dear  pupils,  considered  the  various 
branches  included  in  a  liberal  course  of  female  educa- 
tion. We  have  seen  that  the  great  object  in  view  is  not 
to  form  beings  to  dazzle  the  world  with  a  glittering  and 
transient  splendor,  but  to  give  to  society  women  with 
minds  strengthened  and  prepared  for  the  various  duties 
of  life,  and  capable  of  appreciating  and  rightly  directing 
their  influence.  Of  these  various  duties  and  this  influ- 
ence we  shall  hereafter  treat. 

The  sphere  of  woman's  duty  is  to  be  looked  for  in  pri- 
vate and  domestic  life  ;  and  although  she  may  and  ought 
to  do  all  in  her  power  to  elevate,  refine,  and  embellish 
all  that  comes  within  her  own  circle,  she  should  be  cau- 
tious of  suffering  her  desires  to  extend  beyond  it.  If  ge- 
nius, circumstance  of  fortune,  or  I  might  better  say  the 
providence  of  God,  assign  to  her  a  more  public  and  con- 


DRAWING.  305 

spicuous  station,  she  ought  cheerfully  to  do  all  that  her 
own  powers,  aided  by  the  blessing  of  God,  can  achieve  ; 
and  as  far  as  human  feelings  will  allow,  act  fearlessly 
of  human  censure,  looking  to  a  higher  tribunal  for  the 
reward  of  her  labors. 


SOT 


PARTING    HYMN, 

SUNG    BY    THE    PUPILS    OF    TROY    FEMALE    SEMINARY,  AT  THE* 
CLOSE  OF  EXAMINATION,  FEB.  16,  1831. 

Sisters !  We  are  now  to  part ; 
Long  we've  travell'd  hand  in  hand  : 
Affections,  twin'd  around  the  heart, 
Have  gather'd  close  our  happy  band. 
Love  has  smoothed  the  rough  ascent 
Of  learning's  steep  and  arduous  way, 
Giving  us  as  on  we  went, 
A  peaceful  and  unclouded  day. 
CHORUS. 

Partings  shall  cease, 

In  the  land  of  the  blest; 

There  may  we  meet, 

Forever  to  rest. 

Sisters !  Momentshasten  on ; 

And,  yet.  our  toil  's  not  wholly  done  ; 

Thanks  we  owe  to  many  here, 

For  a  patient,  list'ning  ear. 

But  chief,  to  those,  our  grateful  praise, 

In  music's  swelling  notes  we'll  raise, 

Whose  watchful  and  untiring  care, 

Has  help'd  to  form  us  what  we  are. 

CHORUS.    Partings  shall  cease,  &c, 

Sisters !  We  see  a  broken  band ! 
For  she*  is  in  a  foreign  land, 
Who  first,  our  grateful  love  might  claim, 
Oh,  lov'd  and  honor'd  be  her  name. 
And  o?ie,t  the  gentle  and  the  good ! 
We  see  her  not,  where  late  she  stood ; 
Her  faithful  labors,  all,  are  done, 
Heav'n  has  taken  back  its  own. 

CHORUS.    Partings  shall  cease,  &c. 

*Mrs.  Willard  the  principal,  was  then  in  France. 

t  Mary  Lydia  Treat,  a  niece  of  the  author,  and  the  adopted 
child  of  Mrs.  Willard.  After  pursuing  a  thorough  and  exten- 
sive course  of  education,  she  became  a  teacher  in  the  insti- 
tution, in  which  capacity  she  exhibited  a  rare  combination  of 
meekness  with  decision,  a  dove-like  softness  with  the  most  rigid 
faithfulness  in  the  discharge  of  duty,  a  childish  playfulness  and 
gayety ,  with  deep  and  fervent  piety. — The  examination  room  was 
at  this  time  hung  with  black,  the  teachers  dressed  in  mourning1, 
and  the  pupils  in  half  mourning  for  the  recent  death  of  one,  whom 
all  lamented  as  the  "  Gentle  and  the  Good." 


308  PARTING    HYMN. 

Sisters!  Let  our  thoughts  arise, 
Upwards  to  HIM  who  rules  the  skies  ! 
To  HIM,  our  blessings,  all,  we  owe, 
To  HIM,  should  our  affections  flow  ; 
Then  will  he  guide  our  vvand'ring  way, 
To  regions  of  eternal  day. 
Father  in  Heaven  we  bow  to  thee  ! 
Oh,  may  our  praise  accepted  be. 

CHORUS.     Partings  shall  cease,  &c. 


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